Sikh Maharaja Singh Guruchanran Of Nabha Vintage Original Photo Scarce Punjab

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Seller: memorabilia111 ✉️ (807) 100%, Location: Ann Arbor, Michigan, US, Ships to: US & many other countries, Item: 176277810571 SIKH MAHARAJA SINGH GURUCHANRAN OF NABHA VINTAGE ORIGINAL PHOTO SCARCE PUNJAB. [9] Chaudhary Phul of the Sidhu-Brar clan established the Phulkian Misl, one of the misls (confederacies) of the Sikh Confederacy. % 1891 Population. Vorstenlanden, princely states in the Netherlands Indies. A VINTAGE ORIGINASL 5 1/4 X 7 1/4 INCH PHOO OF MAHARAJA GURUCHANRAN SINGH OF NABHA FROM 1929. photo is in fair shape with sold bends L86433 BOY INSTALLED ON THRONE OP INTERNED PATHER The government of India has ordered the internment of tho maharajah Gurcharan Singh of Nabha, at Kodaikanal, northern India, on the ground that he has shown a dis- ul attitude toward the Government. He has been deprived of his title and estates and his son, the Maharajah Pratap singh installed on the Gadi in his place. PHOTO SHOWS- the Ex- Maharajah Gurucharan Singh of Nabha. YOUR CREDIT LINE MUST READ ( THE) ACME NEWSPICTURES EIGHTH AVE. for syndicate REFERRED-E. DEPT EW YORK CITY AUG 17 29 N. E. A. F19/3 Maharaja Ripudaman Singh (4 March 1883 – 12 December 1942), later known as Sardar Gurcharan Singh, was the Maharaja of Nabha State from 1911 to 1928, when he was deposed by the British. He later became an Indian revolutionary. Early life Ripu Daman Singh was born on 4 March 1883 at Nabha, the only son and heir of Hira Singh Nabha. From 1906 to 1908, he was a member of the Imperial Legislative Council of India, where he spoke on behalf of the Sikh interest and pioneered reformist legislation. He represented Nabha in 1911 at the coronation of King George V. Maharaja Portrait photograph of Maharaja Ripudaman Singh of Nabha Upon his father's death in 1911, Ripudaman Singh ascended the gadi of Nabha; though recognised as Maharaja, he refused to be crowned by the Viceroy of India as was then the norm for a senior ruling prince in India.[1] Continuing his interest in legal affairs, he reformed the state judiciary and enacted numerous pieces of progressive legislation, including laws providing for female education and a progressive marriage act.[1] He also established a legislature and an executive council to govern Nabha. A staunch Indian nationalist, Ripudaman Singh befriended Lala Lajpat Rai and other prominent leaders of the swaraj movement. During the First World War, he refused to contribute Nabha state force contingents for the British Indian Army. As a result, he was arguably the only Indian ruler who did not receive any British war service-related honours.[1] Shocked by the events of the Amritsar Massacre of Jalianwala Bagh in 1919, he publicly opposed the British, clashing with his distant cousin Bhupinder Singh of Patiala, who was a strong supporter of British rule in India. Ripudaman Singh was granted a local salute of 15-guns in 1921, but he would not stay in British favour for much longer. In 1923, he was forced to relinquish control of Nabha to a British administrator after he was suspected of kidnapping and attempted murder through poisoning. Deposition Ripudaman Singh photographed as president of the Indian National Social Conference, by Kuntaline Press, Calcutta In 1923, Ripudaman Singh agreed to leave Nabha and to settle at Dehra Dun. For this he was granted a large allowance. However, he continued to intrigue and attempt to regain control of Nabha to some degree. In 1927, he went on pilgrimage to Sri Abichal Nagar Hazur Sahib and retook the Khalsa initiation rites, taking the name of Gurcharan Singh. The next year, he was formally deposed by the British for sedition and succeeded by his eldest son, Pratap Singh Nabha. He was stripped of his rank and titles and exiled to Kodaikanal in the Madras Presidency. Thereafter, he was known officially as Gurcharan Singh. Death Ripudaman Singh died at Kodaikanal on 12 December 1942, aged 59. He had been succeeded in 1928 by his eldest son, Pratap Singh Nabha. Family Ripudaman Singh married three times, twice to ladies of royal blood and once morganatically: 1. Jagdish Kaur (1884-20 February 1925). Married at Nabha in 1901. She had a daughter: Amar Kaur (8 October 1907-) 2. Sarojni Devi (1898-19?). Married at Nabha 10 October 1918 and had issue: 1. Kharak Singh, who succeeded as Maharaja of Nabha 2. Kharak Singh (d. 1970 in Canada) 3. Gurbaksh Singh (d November 1963) Married in 1950 Princess Chandra Prabha Kumari of Rajpipla (11 November 1932 – 22 October 2012, daughter of Vijaysinhji I of Rajpipla). He had one son and two daughters: Viveck Singh Krishna Kumari (1951–1994) Tuhina Kumari 4. Kamla Devi Sahiba 5. Vimla Devi Sahiba a. Gurcharan Kaur (1904–1983). Married Gurcharan Kaur in 1923 and had issue: 1. Narinder Singh (1924-). A son and a daughter. 2. Fateh Singh (1935-). Two sons. 3. Jasmer Singh 4. Shamsher Singh 5. Vijay Kaur 6. Charanjeet Kaur. Two sons. 7. Nandhem Kaur Titles 1883-1911: Sri Tikka Sahib Ripudaman Singh 1911-1927: His Highness Farzand-i-Arjumand, Aqidat-Paiwand-i-Daulat-i-Angrezistan, Brar Bains Sarmour, Raja-i-Rajagan, Maharaja Shri Ripudaman Singh Malvinder Bahadur, Maharaja of Nabha 1927-1928: His Highness Farzand-i-Arjumand, Aqidat-Paiwand-i-Daulat-i-Angrezistan, Brar Bains Sarmour, Raja-i-Rajagan, Maharaja Shri Gurcharan Singh Malvinder Bahadur, Maharaja of Nabha 1928-1942: Sardar Gurcharan Singh Honours Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society (FRGS) Delhi Durbar Medal-1903 King George V Coronation Medal w/Delhi Durbar Clasp-1911 References

Maharaja Ripudaman Singh (4 March 1883 – 12 December 1942), later known as Sardar Gurcharan Singh, was the Maharaja of Nabha State from 1911 to 1928, when he was deposed by the British. He later became an Indian revolutionary. Early life Ripu Daman Singh was born on 4 March 1883 at Nabha, the only son and heir of Hira Singh Nabha. From 1906 to 1908, he was a member of the Imperial Legislative Council of India, where he spoke on behalf of the Sikh interest and pioneered reformist legislation. He represented Nabha in 1911 at the coronation of King George V. Maharaja Portrait photograph of Maharaja Ripudaman Singh of Nabha Upon his father's death in 1911, Ripudaman Singh ascended the gadi of Nabha; though recognised as Maharaja, he refused to be crowned by the Viceroy of India as was then the norm for a senior ruling prince in India.[1] Continuing his interest in legal affairs, he reformed the state judiciary and enacted numerous pieces of progressive legislation, including laws providing for female education and a progressive marriage act.[1] He also established a legislature and an executive council to govern Nabha. A staunch Indian nationalist, Ripudaman Singh befriended Lala Lajpat Rai and other prominent leaders of the swaraj movement. During the First World War, he refused to contribute Nabha state force contingents for the British Indian Army. As a result, he was arguably the only Indian ruler who did not receive any British war service-related honours.[1] Shocked by the events of the Amritsar Massacre of Jalianwala Bagh in 1919, he publicly opposed the British, clashing with his distant cousin Bhupinder Singh of Patiala, who was a strong supporter of British rule in India. Ripudaman Singh was granted a local salute of 15-guns in 1921, but he would not stay in British favour for much longer. In 1923, he was forced to relinquish control of Nabha to a British administrator after he was suspected of kidnapping and attempted murder through poisoning. Deposition Ripudaman Singh photographed as president of the Indian National Social Conference, by Kuntaline Press, Calcutta In 1923, Ripudaman Singh agreed to leave Nabha and to settle at Dehra Dun. For this he was granted a large allowance. However, he continued to intrigue and attempt to regain control of Nabha to some degree. In 1927, he went on pilgrimage to Sri Abichal Nagar Hazur Sahib and retook the Khalsa initiation rites, taking the name of Gurcharan Singh. The next year, he was formally deposed by the British for sedition and succeeded by his eldest son, Pratap Singh Nabha. He was stripped of his rank and titles and exiled to Kodaikanal in the Madras Presidency. Thereafter, he was known officially as Gurcharan Singh. Death Ripudaman Singh died at Kodaikanal on 12 December 1942, aged 59. He had been succeeded in 1928 by his eldest son, Pratap Singh Nabha. Family Ripudaman Singh married three times, twice to ladies of royal blood and once morganatically: 1. Jagdish Kaur (1884-20 February 1925). Married at Nabha in 1901. She had a daughter: Amar Kaur (8 October 1907-) 2. Sarojni Devi (1898-19?). Married at Nabha 10 October 1918 and had issue: 1. Kharak Singh, who succeeded as Maharaja of Nabha 2. Kharak Singh (d. 1970 in Canada) 3. Gurbaksh Singh (d November 1963) Married in 1950 Princess Chandra Prabha Kumari of Rajpipla (11 November 1932 – 22 October 2012, daughter of Vijaysinhji I of Rajpipla). He had one son and two daughters: Viveck Singh Krishna Kumari (1951–1994) Tuhina Kumari 4. Kamla Devi Sahiba 5. Vimla Devi Sahiba a. Gurcharan Kaur (1904–1983). Married Gurcharan Kaur in 1923 and had issue: 1. Narinder Singh (1924-). A son and a daughter. 2. Fateh Singh (1935-). Two sons. 3. Jasmer Singh 4. Shamsher Singh 5. Vijay Kaur 6. Charanjeet Kaur. Two sons. 7. Nandhem Kaur Titles 1883-1911: Sri Tikka Sahib Ripudaman Singh 1911-1927: His Highness Farzand-i-Arjumand, Aqidat-Paiwand-i-Daulat-i-Angrezistan, Brar Bains Sarmour, Raja-i-Rajagan, Maharaja Shri Ripudaman Singh Malvinder Bahadur, Maharaja of Nabha 1927-1928: His Highness Farzand-i-Arjumand, Aqidat-Paiwand-i-Daulat-i-Angrezistan, Brar Bains Sarmour, Raja-i-Rajagan, Maharaja Shri Gurcharan Singh Malvinder Bahadur, Maharaja of Nabha 1928-1942: Sardar Gurcharan Singh Honours Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society (FRGS) Delhi Durbar Medal-1903 King George V Coronation Medal w/Delhi Durbar Clasp-1911 References Nabha State,[1] with its capital at Nabha, was one of the Phulkian princely states of Punjab during the British Raj in India.[2] Nabha was ruled by Jat Sikhs of the Sidhu clan.[3] History [icon] This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (February 2023) Origin The ruling house of Nabha belonged to the Phulkian dynasty, sharing a common ancestor named Tiloka with the Jind rulers. Tiloka was the eldest son of Phul Sidhu of the Phulkian Misl. The Nabha rulers descend from Gurditta (Gurdit Singh), the elder son of Tiloka. Gurditta was the founder of the localities of Dhanaula and Sangrur. Sangrur was the headquarters of the state till it was captured by Jind State. Gurditta died in 1754, his only son Surat (or Suratya) Singh had died two years earlier in 1752, leaving his grandson, Hamir Singh, as the next in line. Hamir Singh was the founder of the locality of Nabha and the first ruler of Nabha State.[4] List of rulers No. Name (Birth–Death) Portrait Reign Enthronement Ref. Sardars 1 Hamir Singh (died 1783) 1754 – 1783 ? [4] Rajas 2 Jaswant Singh (1775 – 22 May 1840) 1783 – 1840 ? [4] 3 Devinder Singh (5 September 1822 – 14/15 November 1865) 1840 – 1846 15 October 1840 [4] 4 Bharpur Singh (5 October 1840 – 9 November 1863) 1846 – 1863 ? [4] 5 Bhagwan Singh (30 November 1842 – 31 May 1871) 1863 – 1871 17 February 1864 [4] Maharajas 6 Hira Singh (19 December 1843 – 24 December 1911) 1871 – 1911 10 August 1871 [4] 7 Ripudaman Singh (4 March 1883 – 14 December 1942) 1911 – 1923 24 January 1912 [4] 8 Partap Singh (21 September 1919 – 22 July 1995) 1923 – 1948 [4] Demographics Religion Religion in Nabha State (1941)[5]: 42   Religion Population Percentage Hinduism [a] 146,518 42.59% Sikhism 122,451 35.59% Islam 70,373 20.45% Christianity 213 0.06% Others[b] 4,489 1.3% Total Population 344,044 100% Gallery Photograph of Gurdwara Siropa Sahib in Nabha state, where historical Sikh relics and artefacts were kept for safe-keeping, published in Mahan Kosh (1930), ca.1920's Photograph of Gurdwara Siropa Sahib in Nabha state, where historical Sikh relics and artefacts were kept for safe-keeping, published in Mahan Kosh (1930), ca.1920's   Photograph of the Hira Mahal building in Nabha state, published in Mahan Kosh (1930), ca.1920's Photograph of the Hira Mahal building in Nabha state, published in Mahan Kosh (1930), ca.1920's See also Patiala and East Punjab States Union Political integration of India Phulkian sardars Phulkian Misl Patiala State Jind State Faridkot State Malaudh Bhadaur Kaithal Cis-Sutlej states A princely state (also called native state or Indian state) was a nominally sovereign[1] entity of the British Indian Empire that was not directly governed by the British, but rather by an Indian ruler under a form of indirect rule,[2] subject to a subsidiary alliance and the suzerainty or paramountcy of the British crown. In July 1946, Jawaharlal Nehru pointedly observed that no princely state could prevail militarily against the army of independent India.[3] In January 1947, Nehru said that independent India would not accept the divine right of kings.[4] In May, 1947, he declared that any princely state which refused to join the Constituent Assembly would be treated as an enemy state.[5] There were officially 565 princely states when India and Pakistan became independent in 1947, but the great majority had contracted with the British viceroy to provide public services and tax collection. Only 21 had actual state governments, and only four were large (Hyderabad State, Mysore State, Jammu and Kashmir State, and Baroda State). They acceded to one of the two new independent countries between 1947 and 1949. All the princes were eventually pensioned off.[6] At the time of the British withdrawal, 565 princely states were officially recognized in the Indian subcontinent,[7] apart from thousands of zamindari estates and jagirs. In 1947, princely states covered 40% of the area of pre-independence India and constituted 23% of its population.[8] The most important states had their own British political residencies: Hyderabad of the Nizams, Mysore and Travancore in the South, Jammu and Kashmir, Sikkim in the Himalayas, and Indore in Central India. The most prominent among those – roughly a quarter of the total – had the status of a salute state, one whose ruler was entitled to a set number of gun salutes on ceremonial occasions. The princely states varied greatly in status, size, and wealth; the premier 21-gun salute states of Hyderabad and Jammu and Kashmir were each over 200,000 km2 (77,000 sq mi) in size. In 1941, Hyderabad had a population of over 16 million, while Jammu and Kashmir had a population of slightly over 4 million. At the other end of the scale, the non-salute principality of Lawa covered an area of 49 km2 (19 sq mi), with a population of just below 3,000. Some two hundred of the lesser states even had an area of less than 25 km2 (10 sq mi).[9][10] The era of the princely states effectively ended with Indian independence in 1947; by 1950, almost all of the principalities had acceded to either India or Pakistan.[11] The accession process was largely peaceful, except in the cases of Jammu and Kashmir (whose ruler decided to accede to India following an invasion by Pakistan-based forces, resulting in a long-standing dispute between the two countries),[12] Hyderabad State (whose ruler opted for independence in 1947, followed a year later by the invasion and annexation of the state by India), Junagarh and its vassal Bantva Manavadar (whose rulers acceded to Pakistan, but were annexed by India),[13] and Kalat (whose ruler declared independence in 1947, followed in 1948 by the state's accession to Pakistan).[14][15][16] As per the terms of accession, the erstwhile Indian princes received privy purses (government allowances), and initially retained their statuses, privileges, and autonomy in internal matters during a transitional period which lasted until 1956. During this time, the former princely states were merged into unions, each of which was headed by a former ruling prince with the title of Rajpramukh (ruling chief), equivalent to a state governor.[17] In 1956, the position of Rajpramukh was abolished and the federations dissolved, the former principalities becoming part of Indian states. The states which acceded to Pakistan retained their status until the promulgation of a new constitution in 1956, when most became part of the province of West Pakistan; a few of the former states retained their autonomy until 1969 when they were fully integrated into Pakistan. The Indian government abolished the privy purses in 1971, followed by the government of Pakistan in 1972. History Princely state is located in South AsiaSouth Asia 1250 CEDELHISULTANATE(MAMLUKS)AHOMLOHA RASQARLUGHIDSMARYULGUGEKUMAONSOOMRASMAKRAN SULTANATEMONGOL EMPIREVAGHELASCHUDASAMASPARAMARASCHANDELASGUHILASBUNDELASKHANGARSJAISALMERMARWARAMBERAMARKOTCHEROSNAGVANSISKAKATIYASCHODASEASTERN GANGASYADAVASPANDYASCHOLASHOYSALASKADAMBASCHERAS ◁ ▷ South Asian polities, c. 1250 CE.[18] Though principalities and chiefdoms existed on the Indian subcontinent from at least the Iron Age, the history of princely states on the Indian subcontinent dates to at least the fifth or sixth century C.E., during the rise of the middle kingdoms of India following the collapse of the Gupta Empire.[19][20] Many of the future ruling clan groups – notably the Rajputs – began to emerge during this period; by the 13th–14th centuries, many of the Rajput clans had firmly established semi-independent principalities in the north-west, along with several in the north-east. The widespread expansion of Islam during this time brought many principalities into tributary relations with Islamic sultanates, notably with the Mughal Empire. In the south, however, the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire remained dominant until the mid-17th century; among its tributaries was the future Mysore Kingdom. The Turco-Mongol Mughal Empire brought a majority of the existing Indian kingdoms and principalities under its suzerainty by the 17th century, beginning with its foundation in the early 16th century. Despite the difference in religion, the Mughal emperors also contracted a series of marriages with Rajput princesses, and Rajput forces and generals became an important part of their military power. The advent of Sikhism resulted in the creation of the Sikh Empire in the north by the early 18th century, by which time the Mughal Empire was in full decline. The Muslim nawabs had begun as appointed governors of territories conquered by the Mughals, in theory a non-hereditary title, with obligations to pay a large share of their revenues to the emperor. As the emperors became too weak to enforce their power, the nawabs stopped paying, and passed on their realms to their sons. At the same time, the Marathas carved out their own states to form the Maratha Empire. Through the 18th century, former Mughal governors formed their own independent states. In the north-west, some of those – such as Tonk—allied themselves with various groups, including the Marathas and the Durrani Empire, itself formed in 1747 from a loose agglomeration of tribal chiefdoms that composed former Mughal territories. In the south, the principalities of Hyderabad and Arcot were fully established by the 1760s, though they nominally remained vassals of the Mughal emperor. The largest Muslim-ruled state was Hyderabad State, which was also the first to sign a treaty with the British, in 1798, when it was caught between them and the Marathas. The treaties of 1817 and 1818 concluding the decisive Third Anglo-Maratha War left the remaining Maratha territories as princely states, with treaties with the British, and the Rajput states resumed their subordinate status, now with the British. British relationship with the princely states India under the British Raj (the "Indian Empire") consisted of two types of territory: British India and the native states or princely states. In its Interpretation Act 1889, the British Parliament adopted the following definitions: (4.) The expression "British India" shall mean all territories and places within Her Majesty's dominions which are for the time being governed by Her Majesty through the Governor-General of India or through any governor or other officer subordinate to the Governor-General of India. (5.) The expression "India" shall mean British India together with any territories of any native prince or chief under the suzerainty of Her Majesty exercised through the Governor-General of India, or through any governor or other officer subordinate to the Governor-General of India.[21] In general the term "British India" had been used (and is still used) also to refer to the regions under the rule of the East India Company in India from 1774 to 1858.[22][23] The British Crown's suzerainty over 175 princely states, generally the largest and most important, was exercised in the name of the British Crown by the central government of British India under the Viceroy; the remaining approximately 400 states were influenced by Agents answerable to the provincial governments of British India under a governor, lieutenant-governor, or chief commissioner.[24] A clear distinction between "dominion" and "suzerainty" was supplied by the jurisdiction of the courts of law: the law of British India rested upon the legislation enacted by the British Parliament, and the legislative powers those laws vested in the various governments of British India, both central and local; in contrast, the courts of the princely states existed under the authority of the respective rulers of those states.[24] Princely status and titles Sayajirao Gaekwad III, the maharaja of Baroda State. The Indian rulers bore various titles – including Maharaja or Raja ("king"), Sultan, Nawab, Emir, Raje, Nizam, Wadiyar (used only by the Maharajas of Mysore, meaning "lord"), Agniraj Maharaj for the rulers of Bhaddaiyan Raj, Chogyal, Nawab ("governor"), Nayak, Wāli, Inamdar,[25] Saranjamdar[26] and many others. Whatever the literal meaning and traditional prestige of the ruler's actual title, the British government translated them all as "prince", to avoid the implication that the native rulers could be "kings" with status equal to that of the British monarch. An old image of the British Residency in the city of Quilon, Kerala More prestigious Hindu rulers (mostly existing before the Mughal Empire, or having split from such old states) often used the title "Raja", Raje" or a variant such as Rai, Rana, Babu "Rao", "Rawat" or Rawal. Also in this 'class' were several Thakurs or Thai ores and a few particular titles, such as Sardar, Mankari (or Mānkari/Maankari), Deshmukh, Sar Desai, Istamuradar, Saranjamdar, Raja Inamdar etc. The most prestigious Hindu rulers usually had the prefix "maha" ("great", compare for example Grand Duke) in their titles, as in Maharaja, Maharana, Maharao, etc. This was used in many princely states including Mewar, Travancore and Cochin. The state of Travancore also had queens regent styled Maharani, applied only to sister of king in Kerala. There were also compound titles, such as (Maha)rajadhiraj, Raj-i-rajgan, often relics from an elaborate system of hierarchical titles under the Mughal emperors. For example, the addition of the adjective Bahadur raised the status of the titleholder one level. Furthermore, most dynasties used a variety of additional titles such as Varma in South India. This should not be confused with various titles and suffixes not specific to princes but used by entire (sub)castes. This is almost analogous to Singh title in North India. The Sikh princes concentrated at Punjab usually adopted Hindu type titles when attaining princely rank; at a lower level Sardar was used. Muslim rulers almost all used the title "Nawab" (the Arabic honorific of naib, "deputy", used of the Mughal governors, who became de facto autonomous with the decline of the Mughal Empire), with the prominent exceptions of the Nizam of Hyderabad & Berar, the Wāli/Khan of Kalat and the Wāli of Swat. Other less usual titles included Darbar Sahib, Dewan, Jam, Mehtar (unique to Chitral) and Mir (from Emir). Precedence and prestige However, the actual importance of a princely state cannot be read from the title of its ruler, which was usually granted (or at least recognised) as a favour, often in recognition for loyalty and services rendered to the British Raj. Although some titles were raised once or even repeatedly, there was no automatic updating when a state gained or lost real power. In fact, princely titles were even awarded to holders of domains (mainly jagirs) and even taluqdars and zamindars, which were not states at all. Most of the zamindar who hold the princely titles were in fact erstwhile princely and royal states reduced to zamindari by the British EIC. Various sources give significantly different numbers of states and domains of the various types. Even in general, the definition of titles and domains are clearly not well-established. An 1895 group photograph of the eleven-year-old Krishnaraja Wadiyar IV, ruler of the princely state of Mysore in South India, with his brothers and sisters. In 1799, his grandfather, then aged five, had been granted dominion of Mysore by the British and forced into a subsidiary alliance. The British later directly governed the state between 1831 and 1881. The Govindgarh Palace of the Maharaja of Rewa. The palace which was built as a hunting lodge later became famous for the first white tigers that were found in the adjacent jungle and raised in the palace zoo. The Nawab of Junagarh Bahadur Khan III (seated centre in an ornate chair) shown in an 1885 photograph with state officials and family. Photograph (1900) of the Maharani of Sikkim. Sikkim was under the suzerainty of the Provincial government of Bengal; its ruler received a 15-gun salute. In addition to their titles all princely rulers were eligible to be appointed to certain British orders of chivalry associated with India, the Most Exalted Order of the Star of India and the Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire. Women could be appointed as "Knights" (instead of Dames) of these orders. Rulers entitled to 21-gun and 19-gun salutes were normally appointed to the highest rank, Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India. Many Indian princes served in the British Army, the Indian Army, or in local guard or police forces, often rising to high ranks; some even served while on the throne. Many of these were appointed as an Aide de camp, either to the ruling prince of their own house (in the case of relatives of such rulers) or indeed to the British monarchs. Many saw active service, both on the subcontinent and on other fronts, during both World Wars. Apart from those members of the princely houses who entered military service and who distinguished themselves, a good number of princes received honorary ranks as officers in the British and Indian Armed Forces. Those ranks were conferred based on several factors, including their heritage, lineage, gun-salute (or lack of one) as well as personal character or martial traditions. After the First and Second World Wars, the princely rulers of several of the major states, including Gwalior, Patiala, Nabha, Faridkort, Bikaner, Jaipur, Jodhpur, Jammu and Kashmir and Hyderabad, were given honorary general officer ranks as a result of their states' contributions to the war effort. Lieutenant/Captain/Flight Lieutenant or Lieutenant-Commander/Major/Squadron Leader (for junior members of princely houses or for minor princes) Commander/Lieutenant-Colonel/Wing Commander or Captain/Colonel/Group Captain (granted to princes of salute states, often to those entitled to 15-guns or more) Commodore/Brigadier/Air Commodore (conferred upon princes of salute states entitled to gun salutes of 15-guns or more) Major-General/Air Vice-Marshal (conferred upon princes of salute states entitled to 15-guns or more; conferred upon rulers of the major princely states, including Baroda, Kapurthala, Travancore, Bhopal and Mysore) Lieutenant-General (conferred upon the rulers of the largest and most prominent princely houses after the First and Second World Wars for their states' contributions to the war effort.) General (very rarely awarded; the Maharajas of Gwalior and Jammu & Kashmir were created honorary Generals in the British Army in 1877, the Maharaja of Bikaner was made one in 1937, and the Nizam of Hyderabad in 1941)[citation needed] It was also not unusual for members of princely houses to be appointed to various colonial offices, often far from their native state, or to enter the diplomatic corps. Salute states Main article: Salute state HH Maharaja Sir Jayaji Rao Scindia of Gwalior State, General Sir Henry Daly (Founder of The Daly College), with British officers and Maratha nobility (Sardars, Jagirdars & Mankaris) in Indore, Holkar State, c. 1879. The gun salute system was used to set unambiguously the precedence of the major rulers in the area in which the British East India Company was active, or generally of the states and their dynasties. As heads of a state, certain princely rulers were entitled to be saluted by the firing of an odd number of guns between three and 21, with a greater number of guns indicating greater prestige. Generally, the number of guns remained the same for all successive rulers of a particular state, but individual princes were sometimes granted additional guns on a personal basis. Furthermore, rulers were sometimes granted additional gun salutes within their own territories only, constituting a semi-promotion. The states of all these rulers (about 120) were known as salute states. After Indian Independence, the Maharana of Udaipur displaced the Nizam of Hyderabad as the most senior prince in India, because Hyderabad State had not acceded to the new Dominion of India, and the style Highness was extended to all rulers entitled to 9-gun salutes. When the princely states had been integrated into the Indian Union their rulers were promised continued privileges and an income (known as the Privy Purse) for their upkeep. Subsequently, when the Indian government abolished the Privy Purse in 1971, the whole princely order ceased to be recognised under Indian law, although many families continue to retain their social prestige informally; some descendants of the rulers are still prominent in regional or national politics, diplomacy, business and high society. At the time of Indian independence, only five rulers – the Nizam of Hyderabad, the Maharaja of Mysore, the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir state, the Maharaja Gaekwad of Baroda and the Maharaja Scindia of Gwalior – were entitled to a 21-gun salute. Six more[citation needed] – the Nawab of Bhopal, the Maharaja Holkar of Indore, the Maharaja of Bharatpur[citation needed], the Maharana of Udaipur, the Maharaja of Kolhapur, the Maharaja of Patiala[citation needed] and the Maharaja of Travancore – were entitled to 19-gun salutes. The most senior princely ruler was the Nizam of Hyderabad, who was entitled to the unique style Exalted Highness and 21-gun salute.[27] Other princely rulers entitled to salutes of 11 guns (soon 9 guns too) or more were entitled to the style Highness. No special style was used by rulers entitled to lesser gun salutes. As paramount ruler, and successor to the Mughals, the British King-Emperor of India, for whom the style of Majesty was reserved, was entitled to an 'imperial' 101-gun salute—in the European tradition also the number of guns fired to announce the birth of an heir (male) to the throne. Non-salute states Coinage of king Manak Pal (1772-1804), Princely State of Karauli. Karauli mint. Struck in the name of the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II. Dated 1784-5 CE There was no strict correlation between the levels of the titles and the classes of gun salutes, the real measure of precedence, but merely a growing percentage of higher titles in classes with more guns. As a rule the majority of gun-salute princes had at least nine, with numbers below that usually the prerogative of Arab Sheikhs of the Aden protectorate, also under British protection. There were many so-called non-salute states of lower prestige. Since the total of salute states was 117 and there were more than 500 princely states, most rulers were not entitled to any gun salute. Not all of these were minor rulers – Surguja State, for example, was both larger and more populous than Karauli State, but the Maharaja of Karauli was entitled to a 17-gun salute and the Maharaja of Surguja was not entitled to any gun salute at all. A number of princes, in the broadest sense of the term, were not even acknowledged as such.[example needed] On the other hand, the dynasties of certain defunct states were allowed to keep their princely status – they were known as political pensioners, such as the Nawab of Oudh. There were also certain estates of British India which were rendered as political saranjams, having equal princely status.[28] Though none of these princes were awarded gun salutes, princely titles in this category were recognised as a form of vassals of salute states, and were not even in direct relation with the paramount power. Largest princely states by area Eleven largest princely states in terms of area Name of princely state Area in square miles Population in 1941 Present State Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler Gun-salute for ruler  Jammu and Kashmir 84,471 4,021,616 including Gilgit, Baltistan (Skardu), Ladakh, and Punch (mostly Muslim, with sizeable Hindu and Buddhist populations) Jammu and Kashmir Maharaja, Dogra, Hindu 21  Hyderabad State 82,698 16,338,534 (mostly Hindu with a sizeable Muslim minority) Telangana Nizam, Turkic, Sunni Muslim 21  Jodhpur State 36,071 2,125,000 (mostly Hindu with a sizeable Muslim minority) Rajasthan Maharaja, Rathore, Hindu 17  Kingdom of Mysore 29,458 7,328,896 (Chiefly Hindu, with pockets of Muslim populations) Karnataka Wodeyar dynasty; Maharaja; Kannadiga; Hindu Kshattriya (Urs/Arasu in Kannada) 21  Gwalior State 26,397 4,006,159 (chiefly Hindu, with a sizeable Muslim population) Madhya Pradesh Maharaja, Maratha, Hindu 21  Bikaner State 23,317 936,218 (chiefly Hindu, with a low Muslim minority) Rajasthan Maharaja, Rathore, Hindu 17  Bahawalpur State 17,726 1,341,209 (Chiefly Muslim, with a sizeable Hindu, Sikh population) Punjab (Pakistan) Nawab Amir, Abbasid, Muslim 17  Jaisalmer State 16,100 76,255 (Chiefly Hindu with a sizeable Muslim minority) Rajasthan Maharaja, Bhati, Hindu 15  Jaipur State 15,601 2,631,775 (Chiefly Hindu, with a sizeable Muslim minority) Rajasthan Maharaja, Kachhwaha, Hindu 17  Bastar State 13,062 306,501 (Chiefly Hindu, with a low Muslim minority) Chhattisgarh Maharaja, Kakatiya - Bhanj, Hindu - Doctrine of lapse Main article: Doctrine of lapse A controversial aspect of East India Company rule was the doctrine of lapse, a policy under which lands whose feudal ruler died (or otherwise became unfit to rule) without a male biological heir (as opposed to an adopted son) would become directly controlled by the company and an adopted son would not become the ruler of the princely state. This policy went counter to Indian tradition where, unlike Europe, it was far more the accepted norm for a ruler to appoint his own heir. The doctrine of lapse was pursued most vigorously by the Governor-General Sir James Ramsay, 10th Earl (later 1st Marquess) of Dalhousie. Dalhousie annexed seven states, including Awadh (Oudh), whose Nawabs he had accused of misrule, and the Maratha states of Nagpur, Jhansi, Satara, Sambalpur, and Thanjavur. Resentment over the annexation of these states turned to indignation when the heirlooms of the Maharajas of Nagpur were auctioned off in Calcutta. Dalhousie's actions contributed to the rising discontent amongst the upper castes which played a large part in the outbreak of the Indian mutiny of 1857. The last Mughal Badshah (emperor), whom many of the mutineers saw as a figurehead to rally around, was deposed following its suppression. In response to the unpopularity of the doctrine, it was discontinued with the end of Company rule and the British Parliament's assumption of direct power over India. Imperial governance Main articles: Agencies of British India and Residencies of British India Photograph (1894) of the 19-year-old Shahaji II Bhonsle Maharajah of Kolhapur visiting the British resident and his staff at the Residency By treaty, the British controlled the external affairs of the princely states absolutely. As the states were not British possessions, they retained control over their own internal affairs, subject to a degree of British influence which in many states was substantial. By the beginning of the 20th century, relations between the British and the four largest states – Hyderabad, Mysore, Jammu and Kashmir, and Baroda – were directly under the control of the governor-general of India, in the person of a British resident. Two agencies, for Rajputana and Central India, oversaw twenty and 148 princely states respectively. The remaining princely states had their own British political officers, or Agents, who answered to the administrators of India's provinces. The agents of five princely states were then under the authority of Madras, 354 under Bombay, 26 of Bengal, two under Assam, 34 under Punjab, fifteen under the Central Provinces and Berar and two under the United Provinces. Chamber of Princes meeting in March 1941 The Chamber of Princes (Narender Mandal or Narendra Mandal) was an institution established in 1920 by a royal proclamation of the King-Emperor to provide a forum in which the rulers could voice their needs and aspirations to the government. It survived until the end of the British Raj in 1947.[29] By the early 1930s, most of the princely states whose agencies were under the authority of India's provinces were organised into new Agencies, answerable directly to the governor-general, on the model of the Central India and Rajputana agencies: the Eastern States Agency, Punjab States Agency, Baluchistan Agency, Deccan States Agency, Madras States Agency and the Northwest Frontier States Agency. The Baroda Residency was combined with the princely states of northern Bombay Presidency into the Baroda, Western India and Gujarat States Agency. Gwalior was separated from the Central India Agency and given its own Resident, and the states of Rampur and Benares, formerly with Agents under the authority of the United Provinces, were placed under the Gwalior Residency in 1936. The princely states of Sandur and Banganapalle in Mysore Presidency were transferred to the agency of the Mysore Resident in 1939. Principal princely states in 1947 The native states in 1947 included five large states that were in "direct political relations" with the Government of India. For the complete list of princely states in 1947, see Lists of princely states of India. In direct relations with the central government Five large princely states in direct political relations with the Central Government in India[30][31][32][33] Name of princely state Area in square miles Population in 1941 Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand Rupees) Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler Gun-salute for ruler Designation of local political officer  Baroda State 13,866 3,343,477 (chiefly Hindu, with a sizeable Muslim population) 323.26 Maharaja, Maratha, Hindu 21 Resident at Baroda  Hyderabad State 82,698 16,338,534 (mostly Hindu with a sizeable Muslim minority) 1582.43 Nizam, Turkic, Sunni Muslim 21 Resident in Hyderabad  Jammu and Kashmir 84,471 4,021,616 including Gilgit, Baltistan (Skardu), Ladakh, and Punch (mostly Muslim, with sizeable Hindu and Buddhist populations) 463.95 Maharaja, Dogra, Hindu 21 Resident in Jammu & Kashmir  Kingdom of Mysore 29,458 7,328,896 (Chiefly Hindu, with sizeable Muslim populations) 1001.38 Wodeyar (means Owner in Kannada) and Maharaja, Kannadiga, Hindu 21 Resident in Mysore  Gwalior State 26,397 4,006,159 (chiefly Hindu, with a sizeable Muslim population) 356.75 Maharaja, Maratha, Hindu 21 Resident at Gwalior Total 236,890 35,038,682 3727.77 Central India Agency, Gwalior Residency, Baluchistan Agency, Rajputana Agency, Eastern States Agency 88 princely states forming the Central India Agency[34][35] Name of princely state Area in square miles Population in 1941 Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand Rupees) Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler Gun-salute for ruler Designation of local political officer Indore State 9,341 1,513,966 (chiefly Hindu, with a sizeable Muslim population) 304.9 Maharaja, Maratha, Hindu 19 (plus 2 local) Resident at Indore Bhopal 6,924 785,322 (chiefly Hindu, with a sizeable Muslim population) 119.82 Nawab(m)/Begum(f), Afghan, Muslim 19 (plus 2 local) Political Agent in Bhopal Rewah 13,000 1,820,445 (chiefly Hindu, with a sizeable Muslim population) 65 Maharaja, Baghel Rajput, Hindu 17 Second largest state in Baghelkhand 85 smaller and minor states (1941) 22,995 (1901) 2.74 million (Chiefly Hindu, 1901) 129 (1901) Total 77,395 (1901) 8.51 million (1901) 421 (1901) 42 princely states forming the Eastern States Agency[34][36] Name of princely state Area in square miles Population in 1941 Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand Rupees) Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler Gun-salute for ruler Designation of local political officer Cooch Behar 1,318 639,898 (chiefly Hindu and Muslim) 91 Maharaja, Koch (Kshattriya), Brahmo 13 Resident for the Eastern States Tripura State 4,116 513,010 (chiefly Vaishnavite, with a sizeable Sanamahi minority) 54 Maharaja, Tripuri, Vaishnavite (Kshattriya) 13 Resident for the Eastern States Mayurbhanj State 4,243 990,977 (chiefly Hindu) 49 Maharaja, Kshattriya, Hindu 9 Resident for the Eastern States 39 smaller and minor states (1941) 56,253 6,641,991 241.31 Total 65,930 8,785,876 435.31 Gwalior Residency (two states) Two states under the suzerainty of the Resident at Gwalior, Gwalior having direct relations with the central government.[30][37] Name of princely state Area in square miles Population in 1941 Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand Rupees) Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler Gun-salute for ruler Designation of local political officer Rampur 893 464,919 (chiefly Hindu and Muslim, in 1931) 51 Nawab, Pathan, Muslim 15 Political Agent at Rampur Benares State 875 391,165 (chiefly Hindu, 1931) 19 Maharaja, Bhumihar, Hindu 13 (plus 2 local) Political Agent at Benares Total 1,768 856,084 (1941, approx.) 70 23 princely states forming the Rajputana Agency, with the Resident for Rajputana at Abu[38][39] Name of princely state Area in square miles Population in 1941 Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand Rupees) Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler Gun-salute for ruler Designation of local political officer Udaipur (Mewar) 13,170 1,926,698 (chiefly Hindu and Bhil) 107 Maharana, Sisodia Rajput, Hindu 19 (plus 2 personal) Political Agent for the Mewar and Southern Rajputana States Jaipur 15,610 3,040,876 (chiefly Hindu) 188.6 Maharaja, Kachwaha Rajput, Hindu 17 (plus 2 personal) Political Agent at Jaipur Jodhpur (Marwar) 36,120 2,555,904 (chiefly Hindu) 208.65 Maharaja, Rathor Rajput, Hindu 17 Political Agent for the Western States of Rajputana Bikaner 23,181 1,292,938 (chiefly Hindu) 185.5 Maharaja, Rathor Rajput, Hindu 17 Political agent for the Western States of Rajputana 17 salute states, 1 chiefship, 1 zamindari 42,374 3.64 million (chiefly Hindu, 1901) 155 (1901) Total 128,918 (1901) 9.84 million (1901) 320 (1901) Three princely states forming the Baluchistan Agency[40][41] Name of princely state Area in square miles Population in 1941 Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand Rupees) Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler Gun-salute for ruler Designation of local political officer Kalat 73,278 250,211 (chiefly Sunni Muslim) 21.3 Khan or Wali, Baloch, Sunni Muslim 19 Political Agent in Kalat Las Bela 7,132 68,972 (chiefly Sunni Muslim) 6.1 Jam, Baloch, Sunni Muslim Political Agent in Kalat Kharan 14,210 33,763 (chiefly Sunni Muslim) 2 Nawab, Baloch, Sunni Muslim Political Agent in Kalat Total 94,620 352,946 29.4 Sikkim, as a protectorate of the British Government[42] Name of princely state Area in square miles Population in 1941 Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand Rupees) Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler Gun-salute for ruler Designation of local political officer Sikkim 2,818 121,520 (chiefly Buddhist and Hindu) 5 Chogyal, Tibetan, Buddhist 15 Political Officer, Sikkim Other states under provincial governments Madras (5 states) 5 states under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of Madras[40] Name of princely state Area in square miles Population in 1901 Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand) Rupees Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler Gun-salute for ruler Designation of local political officer Travancore 7,091 2,952,157 (chiefly Hindu and Christian) 100 Maharaja, Kshatriya-Samanthan, Hindu 21 (including two guns personal to the then ruler) Resident in Travancore and Cochin Cochin 1,362 812,025 (chiefly Hindu and Christian) 27 Raja, Samanta-Kshatriya, Hindu 17 Resident in Travancore and Cochin Pudukkottai 1,100 380,440 (chiefly Hindu) 11 Raja, Kallar, Hindu 11 Collector of Trichinopoly (ex officio Political Agent) 2 minor states (Banganapalle and Sandur) 416 43,464 3 Total 9,969 4,188,086 141 Bombay (354 states) 354 states under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of Bombay[43] Name of princely state Area in square miles Population in 1901 Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand Rupees) Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler Gun-salute for ruler Designation of local political officer Kolhapur 2,855 910,011 (chiefly Hindus) 48 Maharaja", Chhtrapati "Maratha, Hindu 19 Political Agent for Kolhapur Cutch 7,616 488,022 (chiefly Hindu) 20 Maharao, Jadeja Rajput, Hindu 17 Political Agent in Cutch Junagarh 3,284 395,428 (chiefly Hindu) 27 Nawab, Pathan, Muslim 11 Agent to the Governor in Kathiawar Navanagar 3,791 336,779 (chiefly Hindu) 31 Jam Sahib, Jadeja Rajput, Hindu 11 Agent to the Governor in Kathiawar 349 other states 42,165 4,579,095 281 Total 65,761 6,908,648 420 Central Provinces (15 states) 15 states under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of the Central Provinces[44] Name of princely state Area in square miles Population in 1901 Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand Rupees) Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler Gun-salute for ruler Designation of local political officer Kalahandi 3,745 284,465 (chiefly Hindu) 4 Raja, Kshatriya, Hindu 9 Political Agent for the Chhattisgarh Feudatories Bastar 13,062 306,501 (chiefly Animist) 3 Raja, Kshatriya, Hindu Political Agent for the Chhattisgarh Feudatories 13 other states 12,628 1,339,353 (chiefly Hindu) 16 11 Total 29,435 1,996,383 21 Punjab (45 states) 45 states under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of the Punjab[45][46] Name of princely state Area in square miles Population in 1941 Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand Rupees) Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler Gun-salute for ruler Designation of local political officer Bahawalpur 16,434 1,341,209 (chiefly Muslim) 335 Nawab, Daudputra, Muslim 17 Political Agent for Phulkian States and Bahawalpur Patiala 5,942 1,936,259 (chiefly Sikh) 302.6 Maharaja, Sikh 17 (and 2 personal) Political Agent for Phulkian States and Bahawalpur Nabha 947 340,044 (chiefly Sikh) 38.7 Maharaja, Sikh 13 (and 2 local) Political Agent for Phulkian States and Bahawalpur Jind 1,299 361,812 (chiefly and Sikh) 37.4 Maharaja, Sikh 13 (and 2 personal) Political Agent for Phulkian States and Bahawalpur Kapurthala 645 378,380 (chiefly Sikh) 40.5 Maharaja, Ahuluwalia, Sikh 13 (and 2 personal) Commissioner of the Jullundur Division (ex officio Political Agent) Faridkot 638 199,283 (Sikh) 22.7 Raja, Sikh 11 Commissioner of the Jullundur Division (ex officio Political Agent) Tehri (Garhwal) 4,500 397,369 (chiefly Hindu) 26.9 Maharaja, Rajput Hindu 11 Commissioner of Kumaun (ex officio Political Agent) Khairpur 6,050 305,387 (chiefly Muslim) 15 (plus 2 local) Mir, Talpur Baloch, Muslim 37.8 Political Agent for Khairpur 25 other states 12,661 (in 1901) 1,087,614 (in 1901) 30 (in 1901) Total 36,532 (in 1901) 4,424,398 (in 1901) 155 (in 1901) Assam (26 states) 26 states under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of Assam[47][48] Name of princely state Area in square miles Population in 1941 Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand Rupees) Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler Gun-salute for ruler Designation of local political officer Manipur 270.3 512,069 (chiefly Hindu and Animist) 19 Raja, Kshatriya, Hindu 11 Political Agent in Manipur 25 Khasi States 3,778 213,586 (Khasi and Christian) ~1 (1941, approx.) Deputy Commissioner, Khasi and Jaintia Hills Total 12,416 725,655 20 (1941; approx.) Burma See also: Shan States and Wa States Burma (52 states) 52 states in Burma: all except Kantarawadi, one of the Karenni States, were included in British India until 1937[49] Name of princely state Area in square miles Population in 1901 Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand Rupees) Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler Gun-salute for ruler Designation of local political officer Hsipaw (Thibaw) 5,086 105,000 (Buddhist) 3 Sawbwa, Shan, Buddhist 9 Superintendent, Northern Shan States Kengtung 12,000 190,000 (Buddhist) 1 Sawbwa, Shan, Buddhist 9 Superintendent Southern Shan States Yawnghwe 865 95,339 (Buddhist) 2.13 Sawbwa, Shan, Buddhist 9 Superintendent Southern Shan States Mongnai 2,717 44,000 (Buddhist) 0.5 Sawbwa, Shan, Buddhist Superintendent Southern Shan States 5 Karenni States 3,130 45,795 (Buddhist and Animist) 0.035 Sawbwa, Karenni, Buddhist Superintendent Southern Shan States 44 other states 42,198 792,152 (Buddhist and Animist) 8.5 Total 67,011 1,177,987 13.5 State military forces Main article: Indian State Forces The armies of the Native States were bound by many restrictions that were imposed by subsidiary alliances. They existed mainly for ceremonial use and for internal policing, although certain units designated as Imperial Service Troops, were available for service alongside the regular Indian Army upon request by the British government.[50] According to the Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV 1907, p. 85, Since a chief can neither attack his neighbour nor fall out with a foreign nation, it follows that he needs no military establishment which is not required either for police purposes or personal display, or for cooperation with the Imperial Government. The treaty made with Gwalior in 1844, and the instrument of transfer given to Mysore in 1881, alike base the restriction of the forces of the State upon the broad ground of protection. The former explained in detail that unnecessary armies were embarrassing to the State itself and the cause of disquietude to others: a few months later a striking proof of this was afforded by the army of the Sikh kingdom of Lahore. The British Government has undertaken to protect the dominions of the Native princes from invasion and even from rebellion within: its army is organised for the defence not merely of British India, but of all the possessions under the suzerainty of the King-Emperor.[51] In addition, other restrictions were imposed: The treaties with most of the larger States are clear on this point. Posts in the interior must not be fortified, factories for the production of guns and ammunition must not be constructed, nor may the subject of other States be enlisted in the local forces. ... They must allow the forces that defend them to obtain local supplies, to occupy cantonments or positions, and to arrest deserters; and in addition to these services they must recognise the Imperial control of the railways, telegraphs, and postal communications as essential not only to the common welfare but to the common defence.[52] The Imperial Service Troops were routinely inspected by British army officers and had the same equipment as soldiers in the British Indian Army.[53] Although their numbers were relatively small, the Imperial Service Troops were employed in China and British Somaliland in the first decade of the 20th century, and later saw action in the First World War and Second World War .[53] Political integration of princely states In 1920, Congress declared that attainment of swaraj for Indians was its goal. It asked "all the sovereign princes of India to establish full responsible government in their states". Mahatma Gandhi assured the princes that Congress will not intervene in internal affairs of the princely states.[54] In his presidential address at Lahore session in 1929, Jawaharlal Nehru declared: "The Indian states cannot live apart from the rest of the India".[55] In 1937, Gandhi played a major role in formation of federation involving a union between British India and the princely states with an Indian central government.[56] In July 1946, Nehru pointedly observed that no princely state could prevail militarily against the army of independent India.[3] India Main article: Political integration of India At the time of Indian independence on 15 August 1947, India was divided into two sets of territories, the first being the territories of "British India", which were under the direct control of the India Office in London and the governor-general of India, and the second being the "princely states", the territories over which the Crown had suzerainty, but which were under the control of their hereditary rulers. In addition, there were several colonial enclaves controlled by France and Portugal. The integration of these territories into Dominion of India, that had been created by the Indian Independence Act 1947 by the British Parliament, was a declared objective of the Indian National Congress, which the Government of India pursued over the years 1947 to 1949. Through a combination of tactics, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and V. P. Menon in the months immediately preceding and following the independence convinced the rulers of almost all of the hundreds of princely states to accede to India. In a speech in January 1948, Vallabhbhai Patel said: As you are all aware, on the lapse of Paramountcy every Indian State became a separate independent entity and our first task of consolidating about 550 States was on the basis of accession to the Indian Dominion on three subjects. Barring Hyderabad and Junagadh all the states which are contiguous to India acceded to Indian Dominion. Subsequently, Kashmir also came in... Some Rulers who were quick to read the writing on the wall, gave responsible government to their people; Cochin being the most illustrious example. In Travancore, there was a short struggle, but there, too, the Ruler soon recognised the aspiration of his people and agreed to introduce a constitution in which all powers would be transferred to the people and he would function as a constitutional Ruler.[57] Although this process successfully integrated the vast majority of princely states into India, it was not as successful in relation to a few states, notably the former princely state of Kashmir, whose Maharaja delayed signing the instrument of accession into India until his territories were under the threat of invasion by Pakistan, and the state of Hyderabad, whose ruler decided to remain independent and was subsequently defeated by the Operation Polo invasion. Having secured their accession, Sardar Patel and V. P. Menon then proceeded, in a step-by-step process, to secure and extend the central government's authority over these states and to transform their administrations until, by 1956, there was little difference between the territories that had formerly been part of British India and those that had been princely states. Simultaneously, the Government of India, through a combination of diplomatic and economic pressure, acquired control over most of the remaining European colonial exclaves on the subcontinent. Fed up with the protracted and stubborn resistance of the Portuguese government; in 1961 the Indian Army invaded and annexed Portuguese India.[58] These territories, like the princely states, were also integrated into the Republic of India. As the final step, in 1971, the 26th amendment[59] to the Constitution of India withdrew recognition of the princes as rulers, took away their remaining privileges, and abolished the remuneration granted to them by privy purses. Pakistan Main article: Princely states of Pakistan During the period of the British Raj, there were four princely states in Balochistan: Makran, Kharan, Las Bela and Kalat. The first three acceded to Pakistan.[60][61][62][63] However, the ruler of the fourth princely state, the Khan of Kalat Ahmad Yar Khan, declared Kalat's independence as this was one of the options given to all princely states.[64] The state remained independent until it was acceded on 27 March 1948. The signing of the Instrument of Accession by Ahmad Yar Khan, led his brother, Prince Abdul Karim, to revolt against his brother's decision in July 1948, causing an ongoing and still unresolved insurgency.[65] Bahawalpur from the Punjab Agency joined Pakistan on 5 October 1947. The princely states of the North-West Frontier States Agencies. included the Dir Swat and Chitral Agency and the Deputy Commissioner of Hazara acting as the Political Agent for Amb and Phulra. These states joined Pakistan on independence from the British.[citation needed] See also Flags of Indian princely states Political integration of India List of princely states of British India (by region) List of Indian monarchs Praja Mandal Salute state Indian feudalism Indian honorifics Ghatwals and Mulraiyats Jagirdar List of Maratha dynasties and states List of Rajput dynasties and states Maratha Empire Maratha titles Oudh Bequest Rajputana Zamindar Vorstenlanden, princely states in the Netherlands Indies Punjab was a province of British Raj. Most of the Punjab region was annexed by the East India Company in 29 March 1849, and declared a province of British rule; it was one of the last areas of the Indian subcontinent to fall under British control. In 1858, the Punjab, along with the rest of British Raj, came under the direct rule of the British Crown. It had an area of 358,354.5 km2. The province comprised four natural geographic regions – Indo-Gangetic Plain West, Himalayan, Sub-Himalayan, and the North-West Dry Area – along with five administrative divisions – Delhi, Jullundur, Lahore, Multan, and Rawalpindi – and a number of princely states.[1] In 1947, the Partition of India led to the province's division into East Punjab and West Punjab, in the newly independent dominions of India and Pakistan respectively. Etymology The region was originally called Sapta Sindhu Rivers,[2] the Vedic land of the seven rivers originally: Saraswati, Indus, Sutlej, Jehlum, Chenab, Ravi, and Beas.[3] The Sanskrit name for the region, as mentioned in the Ramayana and Mahabharata for example, was Panchanada which means "Land of the Five Rivers", and was translated to Persian as Punjab after the Muslim conquests.[4][5] The later name Punjab is a compound of two Persian words[6][7] Panj (five) and āb (water) and was introduced to the region by the Turko-Persian conquerors[8] of India and more formally popularised during the Mughal Empire.[9][10] Punjab literally means "(The Land of) Five Waters" referring to the rivers: Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas.[11] All are tributaries of the Indus River, the Chenab being the largest. Geography Geographically, the province was a triangular tract of country of which the Indus River and its tributary the Sutlej formed the two sides up to their confluence, the base of the triangle in the north being the Lower Himalayan Range between those two rivers. Moreover, the province as constituted under British rule also included a large tract outside these boundaries. Along the northern border, Himalayan ranges divided it from Kashmir and Tibet. On the west it was separated from the North-West Frontier Province by the Indus, until it reached the border of Dera Ghazi Khan District, which was divided from Baluchistan by the Sulaiman Range. To the south lay Sindh and Rajputana, while on the east the rivers Jumna and Tons separated it from the United Provinces.[1] In total Punjab had an area of approximately 357 000 km square about the same size as modern day Germany, being one of the largest provinces of the British Raj. It encompassed the present day Indian states of Punjab, Haryana, Chandigarh, Delhi, and some parts of Himachal Pradesh which were merged with Punjab by the British for administrative purposes (but excluding the former princely states which were later combined into the Patiala and East Punjab States Union) and the Pakistani regions of the Punjab, Islamabad Capital Territory and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. In 1901 the frontier districts beyond the Indus were separated from Punjab and made into a new province: the North-West Frontier Province. Subsequently, Punjab was divided into four natural geographical divisions by colonial officials on the decadal census data:[12]: 2 [13]: 4  Indo-Gangetic Plain West geographical division (including Hisar district, Loharu State, Rohtak district, Dujana State, Gurgaon district, Pataudi State, Delhi, Karnal district, Jalandhar district, Kapurthala State, Ludhiana district, Malerkotla State, Firozpur district, Faridkot State, Patiala State, Jind State, Nabha State, Lahore District, Amritsar district, Gujranwala District, and Sheikhupura District); Himalayan geographical division (including Sirmoor State, Simla District, Simla Hill States, Bilaspur State, Kangra district, Mandi State, Suket State, and Chamba State); Sub-Himalayan geographical division (including Ambala district, Kalsia State, Hoshiarpur district, Gurdaspur district, Sialkot District, Gujrat District, Jhelum District, Rawalpindi District, and Attock District; North-West Dry Area geographical division (including Montgomery District, Shahpur District, Mianwali District, Lyallpur District, Jhang District, Multan District, Bahawalpur State, Muzaffargarh District, Dera Ghazi Khan District, and the Biloch Trans–Frontier Tract). History Company rule See also: Company rule in India The Durbar, or assembly of native princes and nobles, convened by Sir John Lawrence at Lahore On 21 February 1849, the East India Company decisively defeated the Sikh Empire at the Battle of Gujrat bringing to an end the Second Anglo-Sikh War. Following the victory, the East India Company annexed the Punjab on 2 April 1849 and incorporated it within British India. The province whilst nominally under the control of the Bengal Presidency was administratively independent. Lord Dalhousie constituted the Board of Administration by inducting into it the most experienced and seasoned British officers. The Board was led by Sir Henry Lawrence, who had previously worked as British Resident at the Lahore Durbar and also consisted of his younger brother John Lawrence and Charles Grenville Mansel.[14] Below the Board, a group of acclaimed officers collectively known as Henry Lawrence's "Young Men" assisted in the administration of the newly acquired province. The Board was abolished by Lord Dalhousie in 1853; Sir Henry was assigned to the Rajputana Agency, and his brother John succeeded as the first Chief Commissioner. Recognising the cultural diversity of the Punjab, the Board maintained a strict policy of non-interference in regard to religious and cultural matters.[15] Sikh aristocrats were given patronage and pensions and groups in control of historical places of worship were allowed to remain in control.[15] During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the Punjab remained relatively peaceful, apart from rebellion led by Ahmad Khan Kharral.[16] In May, John Lawrence took swift action to disarm potentially mutinous sepoys and redeploy most European troops to the Delhi ridge.[17] Finally he recruited new regiments of Punjabis to replace the depleted force, and was provided with manpower and support from surrounding princely states such as Jind, Patiala, Nabha and Kapurthala and tribal chiefs on the borderlands with Afghanistan. By 1858, an estimated 70,000 extra men had been recruited for the army and militarised police from within the Punjab.[16] British Raj See also: British Raj The Punjab in 1880 In 1858, under the terms of the Queen's Proclamation issued by Queen Victoria, the Punjab, along with the rest of British India, came under the direct rule of the British Crown.[18] Delhi Territory was transferred from the North-Western Provinces to the Punjab in 1858, partly to punish the city for the important role the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II, and the city as a whole, played in the 1857 Rebellion.[19] Sir John Lawrence, then Chief Commissioner, was appointed the first Lieutenant-Governor on 1 January 1859. In 1866, the Judicial Commissioner was replaced by a Chief Court. The direct administrative functions of the Government were carried by the Lieutenant-Governor through the Secretariat, comprising a Chief Secretary, a Secretary and two Under-Secretaries. They were usually members of the Indian Civil Service.[20] The territory under the Lieutenant consisted of 29 Districts, grouped under 5 Divisions, and 43 Princely States. Each District was under a Deputy-Commissioner, who reported to the Commissioner of the Division. Each District was subdivided into between three and seven tehsils, each under a tahsildar, assisted by a naib (deputy) tahsildar.[21] In 1885 the Punjab administration began an ambitious plan to transform over six million acres of barren waste land in central and western Punjab into irrigable agricultural land. The creation of canal colonies was designed to relieve demographic pressures in the central parts of the province, increase productivity and revenues, and create a loyal support amongst peasant landholders.[22] The colonisation resulted in an agricultural revolution in the province, rapid industrial growth, and the resettlement of over one million Punjabis in the new areas.[23] A number of towns were created or saw significant development in the colonies, such as Lyallpur, Sargodha and Montgomery. Colonisation led to the canal irrigated area of the Punjab increasing from three to fourteen million acres in the period from 1885 to 1947.[24] The beginning of the twentieth century saw increasing unrest in the Punjab. Conditions in the Chenab colony, together with land reforms such as the Punjab Land Alienation Act, 1900 and the Colonisation Bill, 1906 contributed to the 1907 Punjab unrest. The unrest was unlike any previous agitation in the province as the government had for the first time aggrieved a large portion of the rural population.[25] Mass demonstrations were organised, headed by Lala Lajpat Rai, a leader of the Hindu revivalist sect Arya Samaj.[25] The unrest resulted in the repeal of the Colonisation Bill and the end of paternalist policies in the colonies.[25] During the First World War, Punjabi manpower contributed heavily to the Indian Army. Out of a total of 683,149 combat troops, 349,688 hailed from the province.[26] In 1918, an influenza epidemic broke out in the province, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 962,937 people or 4.77 percent of the total estimated population.[27] In March 1919 the Rowlatt Act was passed extending emergency measures of detention and incarceration in response to the perceived threat of terrorism from revolutionary nationalist organisations.[28] This led to the infamous Jallianwala Bagh massacre in April 1919, where Colonel Reginald Edward Harry Dyer ordered detachments of the 9th Gorkha Rifles and the 59th Scinde Rifles under his command to fire into a group of some 10,000 unarmed protesters and Baisakhi pilgrims, killing 379.[29] Administrative reforms The Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms enacted through the Government of India Act 1919 expanded the Punjab Legislative Council and introduced the principle of dyarchy, whereby certain responsibilities such as agriculture, health, education, and local government, were transferred to elected ministers. The first Punjab Legislative Council under the 1919 Act was constituted in 1921, comprising 93 members, seventy per cent to be elected and rest to be nominated.[30] Some of the British Indian ministers under the dyarchy scheme were Sir Sheikh Abdul Qadir, Sir Shahab-ud-Din Virk and Lala Hari Kishen Lal.[31][32] The Government of India Act 1935 introduced provincial autonomy to Punjab replacing the system of dyarchy. It provided for the constitution of Punjab Legislative Assembly of 175 members presided by a Speaker and an executive government responsible to the Assembly. The Unionist Party under Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan formed the government in 1937. Sir Sikandar was succeeded by Malik Khizar Hayat Tiwana in 1942 who remained the Premier till partition in 1947. Although the term of the Assembly was five years, the Assembly continued for about eight years and its last sitting was held on 19 March 1945.[33] Partition See also: Partition of India The struggle for Indian independence witnessed competing and conflicting interests in the Punjab. The landed elites of the Muslim, Hindu and Sikh communities had loyally collaborated with the British since annexation, supported the Unionist Party and were hostile to the Congress party led independence movement.[34] Amongst the peasantry and urban middle classes, the Hindus were the most active National Congress supporters, the Sikhs flocked to the Akali movement whilst the Muslims eventually supported the All-India Muslim League.[34] Since the partition of the sub-continent had been decided, special meetings of the Western and Eastern Section of the Legislative Assembly were held on 23 June 1947 to decide whether or not the Province of the Punjab be partitioned. After voting on both sides, partition was decided and the existing Punjab Legislative Assembly was also divided into West Punjab Legislative Assembly and the East Punjab Legislative Assembly. This last Assembly before independence, held its last sitting on 4 July 1947.[35] Demographics Population history Year Pop. ±% 1855 17,600,000 —     1868 19,700,000 +11.9% 1881 20,800,995 +5.6% 1891 22,915,894 +10.2% 1901 24,367,113 +6.3% 1911 23,791,841 −2.4% 1921 25,101,514 +5.5% 1931 28,490,869 +13.5% 1941 34,309,861 +20.4% Source: Census of India [13]: 8 [36]: 6 [37]: 86  The first British census of the Punjab was carried out in 1855. This covered only British territory to the exclusion of local princely states, and placed the population at 17.6 million. The first regular census of British India carried out in 1881 recorded a population of 20.8 million people. The final British census in 1941 recorded 34.3 million people in the Punjab, which comprised 29 districts within British territory, 43 princely states, 52,047 villages and 283 towns.[37] In 1881, only Amritsar and Lahore had populations over 100,000. The commercial and industrial city of Amritsar (152,000) was slightly larger than the cultural capital of Lahore (149,000). Over the following sixty years, Lahore increased in population fourfold, whilst Amritsar grew two-fold. By 1941, the province had seven cities with populations over 100,000 with emergence and growth of Rawalpindi, Multan, Sialkot, Jullundur and Ludhiana.[37] The colonial period saw large scale migration within the Punjab due to the creation of canal colonies in western Punjab. The majority of colonists hailed from the seven most densely populated districts of Amritsar, Gurdaspur, Jullundur, Hoshiarpur, Ludhiana, Ambala and Sialkot, and consisted primarily of Khatris, Jats, Arains, Sainis, Kambohs and Rajputs. The movement of many highly skilled farmers from eastern and central Punjab to the new colonies, led to western Punjab becoming the most progressive and advanced agricultural region of the province. The period also saw significant numbers of Punjabis emigrate to other regions of the British Empire. The main destinations were East Africa - Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, Southeast Asia - Malaya and Burma, Hong Kong and Canada.[37] Religion Main article: Religion in the Punjab The Punjab was a religiously eclectic province, comprising three major groups: Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs. By 1941, the religious Muslims constituting an absolute majority at 53.2%, whilst the Hindu population was at 30.1%.[g] The period between 1881 and 1941 saw a significant increase in the Sikh and Christian populations, growing from 8.2% and 0.1% to 14.9% and 1.9% respectively.[37] The decrease in the Hindu population has been attributed to the conversion of Hindus mainly to Sikhism and Islam, and also to Christianity.[37] In 1941, the Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs made 30.1,[g] 53.2 and 14.9 per cent of the total population of Punjab but made 37.9, 51.4 and 8.4 per cent of its urban population respectively.[37] Population trends for major religious groups in the Punjab Province of the British India(1881–1941)[37][13]: 46  Religious group Population % 1881 Population % 1891 Population % 1901 Population % 1911[h] Population % 1921 Population % 1931 Population % 1941 Islam 47.6% 47.8% 49.6% 51.1% 51.1% 52.4% 53.2% Hinduism 43.8% 43.6% 41.3% 35.8% 35.1% 31.7%[g] 30.1%[g] Sikhism 8.2% 8.2% 8.6% 12.1% 12.4% 14.3% 14.9% Christianity 0.1% 0.2% 0.3% 0.8% 1.3% 1.5% 1.5% Other religions / No religion 0.3% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.1% 0.1% 0.3% Religion in West Punjab (1941)[i][13]: 42  Religion Population Percentage Islam 13,022,160 75.06% Hinduism [g] 2,373,466 13.68% Sikhism 1,530,112 8.82% Christianity 395,311 2.28% Jainism 9,520 0.05% Others[j] 19,534 0.11% Total Population 17,350,103 100% Territory comprises the contemporary subdivisions of Punjab, Pakistan and Islamabad Capital Territory. Religion in East Punjab (1941)[k][13]: 42  Religion Population Percentage Hinduism [g] 7,963,083 46.95% Islam 5,237,584 30.88% Sikhism 3,586,073 21.14% Christianity 117,155 0.69% Jainism 35,955 0.21% Others[j] 19,908 0.12% Total Population 16,959,758 100% Territory comprises the contemporary subdivisions of Punjab, India, Chandigarh, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh. Indo−Gangetic Plain West geographical division Including Hisar district, Loharu State, Rohtak district, Dujana State, Gurgaon district, Pataudi State, Delhi, Karnal district, Jalandhar district, Kapurthala State, Ludhiana district, Malerkotla State, Firozpur district, Faridkot State, Patiala State, Jind State, Nabha State, Lahore District, Amritsar district, Gujranwala District, and Sheikhupura District.[12]: 2 [13]: 4  Religion in the Indo−Gangetic Plain West geographical division of Punjab Province (1901—1941)[13]: 48  Religion Percentage 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 Hinduism 43.79% 42.62% 41.37% 36.04% 33.54% Islam 37.36% 37.81% 38.0% 39.72% 40.41% Sikhism 18.35% 18.73% 19.10% 21.88% 23.11% Christianity 0.18% 0.51% 1.23% 1.54% 1.60% Jainism 0.32% 0.33% 0.29% 0.27% 0.28% Religion in the Districts & Princely States of the Indo−Gangetic Plain West geographical division (1941)[13]: 42  District/ Princely State Islam Hinduism [g] Sikhism Christianity Jainism Others[j] Total Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Hisar District 285,208 28.33% 652,842 64.85% 60,731 6.03% 1,292 0.13% 6,126 0.61% 510 0.05% 1,006,709 100% Loharu State 3,960 14.2% 23,923 85.77% 7 0.03% 2 0.01% 0 0% 0 0% 27,892 100% Rohtak District 166,569 17.42% 780,474 81.61% 1,466 0.15% 1,043 0.11% 6,847 0.72% 0 0% 956,399 100% Dujana State 6,939 22.63% 23,727 77.37% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 30,666 100% Gurgaon District 285,992 33.59% 560,537 65.83% 637 0.07% 1,673 0.2% 2,613 0.31% 6 0% 851,458 100% Pataudi State 3,655 16.98% 17,728 82.38% 0 0% 9 0.04% 128 0.59% 0 0% 21,520 100% Karnal District 304,346 30.6% 666,301 66.99% 19,887 2% 1,249 0.13% 2,789 0.28% 3 0% 994,575 100% Jalandhar District 509,804 45.23% 311,010 27.59% 298,741 26.5% 6,233 0.55% 1,395 0.12% 7 0% 1,127,190 100% Kapurthala State 213,754 56.49% 61,546 16.27% 88,350 23.35% 1,667 0.44% 380 0.1% 12,683 3.35% 378,380 100% Ludhiana District 302,482 36.95% 171,715 20.98% 341,175 41.68% 1,913 0.23% 1,279 0.16% 51 0.01% 818,615 100% Malerkotla State 33,881 38.45% 23,482 26.65% 30,320 34.41% 116 0.13% 310 0.35% 0 0% 88,109 100% Firozpur District 641,448 45.07% 287,733 20.22% 479,486 33.69% 12,607 0.89% 1,674 0.12% 128 0.01% 1,423,076 100% Faridkot State 61,352 30.79% 21,814 10.95% 115,070 57.74% 247 0.12% 800 0.4% 0 0% 199,283 100% Patiala State 436,539 22.55% 597,488 30.86% 896,021 46.28% 1,592 0.08% 3,101 0.16% 1,518 0.08% 1,936,259 100% Jind State 50,972 14.09% 268,355 74.17% 40,981 11.33% 161 0.04% 1,294 0.36% 49 0.01% 361,812 100% Nabha State 70,373 20.45% 146,518 42.59% 122,451 35.59% 221 0.06% 480 0.14% 1 0% 344,044 100% Lahore District 1,027,772 60.62% 284,689 16.79% 310,646 18.32% 70,147 4.14% 1,951 0.12% 170 0.01% 1,695,375 100% Amritsar District 657,695 46.52% 217,431 15.38% 510,845 36.13% 25,973 1.84% 1,911 0.14% 21 0% 1,413,876 100% Gujranwala District 642,706 70.45% 108,115 11.85% 99,139 10.87% 60,829 6.67% 1,445 0.16% 0 0% 912,234 100% Sheikhupura District 542,344 63.62% 89,182 10.46% 160,706 18.85% 60,054 7.04% 221 0.03% 1 0% 852,508 100% Himalayan geographical division Including Sirmoor State, Simla District, Simla Hill States, Bilaspur State, Kangra district, Mandi State, Suket State, and Chamba State.[13]: 48 [12]: 2  Religion in the Himalayan geographical division of Punjab Province (1901—1941)[13]: 48  Religion Percentage 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 Hinduism 94.60% 94.53% 94.50% 94.25% 94.35% Islam 4.53% 4.30% 4.45% 4.52% 4.27% Sikhism 0.23% 0.46% 0.44% 0.49% 0.60% Christianity 0.20% 0.26% 0.26% 0.14% 0.10% Jainism 0.03% 0.02% 0.02% 0.02% 0.03% Religion in the Districts & Princely States of the Himalayan geographical division (1941)[13]: 42  District/ Princely State Hinduism [g] Islam Sikhism Christianity Jainism Others[j] Total Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Sirmoor State 146,199 93.7% 7,374 4.73% 2,334 1.5% 38 0.02% 81 0.05% 0 0% 156,026 100% Simla District 29,466 76.38% 7,022 18.2% 1,032 2.68% 934 2.42% 114 0.3% 8 0.02% 38,576 100% Simla Hill States 345,716 96.16% 10,812 3.01% 2,693 0.75% 161 0.04% 126 0.04% 12 0% 359,520 100% Bilaspur State 108,375 98.22% 1,498 1.36% 453 0.41% 7 0.01% 3 0% 0 0% 110,336 100% Kangra District 846,531 94.12% 43,249 4.81% 4,809 0.53% 788 0.09% 101 0.01% 3,899 0.43% 899,377 100% Mandi State 227,463 97.79% 4,328 1.86% 583 0.25% 11 0% 0 0% 208 0.09% 232,593 100% Suket State 69,974 98.43% 884 1.24% 234 0.33% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 71,092 100% Chamba State 155,910 92.3% 12,318 7.29% 107 0.06% 190 0.11% 0 0% 383 0.23% 168,908 100% Sub−Himalayan geographical division Including Ambala district, Kalsia State, Hoshiarpur district, Gurdaspur district, Sialkot District, Gujrat District, Jhelum District, Rawalpindi District, and Attock District.[13]: 48 [12]: 2  Religion in the Sub−Himalayan geographical division of Punjab Province (1901—1941)[13]: 48  Religion Percentage 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 Islam 60.62% 61.19% 61.44% 61.99% 62.29% Hinduism 33.09% 27.36% 26.66% 22.85% 21.98% Sikhism 5.68% 9.74% 9.77% 11.65% 11.89% Christianity 0.48% 1.59% 2.01% 2.05% 1.74% Jainism 0.12% 0.12% 0.12% 0.11% 0.12% Religion in the Districts & Princely States of the Sub−Himalayan geographical division (1941)[13]: 42  District/ Princely State Islam Hinduism [g] Sikhism Christianity Jainism Others[j] Total Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Ambala District 268,999 31.73% 412,658 48.68% 156,543 18.47% 6,065 0.72% 3,065 0.36% 415 0.05% 847,745 100% Kalsia State 25,049 37.17% 29,866 44.32% 12,235 18.15% 55 0.08% 188 0.28% 0 0% 67,393 100% Hoshiarpur District 380,759 32.53% 584,080 49.91% 198,194 16.93% 6,165 0.53% 1,125 0.1% 0 0% 1,170,323 100% Gurdaspur District 589,923 51.14% 290,774 25.21% 221,261 19.18% 51,522 4.47% 25 0% 6 0% 1,153,511 100% Sialkot District 739,218 62.09% 231,319 19.43% 139,409 11.71% 75,831 6.37% 3,250 0.27% 1,470 0.12% 1,190,497 100% Gujrat District 945,609 85.58% 84,643 7.66% 70,233 6.36% 4,449 0.4% 10 0% 8 0% 1,104,952 100% Jhelum District 563,033 89.42% 40,888 6.49% 24,680 3.92% 893 0.14% 159 0.03% 5 0% 629,658 100% Rawalpindi District 628,193 80% 82,478 10.5% 64,127 8.17% 9,014 1.15% 1,337 0.17% 82 0.01% 785,231 100% Attock District 611,128 90.42% 43,209 6.39% 20,120 2.98% 1,392 0.21% 13 0% 13 0% 675,875 100% North−West Dry Area geographical division Including Montgomery District, Shahpur District, Mianwali District, Lyallpur District, Jhang District, Multan District, Bahawalpur State, Muzaffargarh District, Dera Ghazi Khan District, and the Biloch Trans–Frontier Tract.[13]: 48 [12]: 2  Religion in the North−West Dry Area geographical division of Punjab Province (1901—1941)[13]: 48  Religion Percentage 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 Islam 79.01% 80.00% 78.95% 78.22% 77.85% Hinduism 17.84% 13.58% 14.23% 12.80% 13.21% Sikhism 2.91% 5.62% 5.64% 6.73% 6.74% Christianity 0.23% 0.79% 1.17% 1.18% 1.17% Jainism 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% Religion in the Districts & Princely States of the North−West Dry Area geographical division (1941)[13]: 42  District/ Princely State Islam Hinduism [g] Sikhism Christianity Jainism Others[j] Total Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Montgomery District 918,564 69.11% 210,966 15.87% 175,064 13.17% 24,432 1.84% 49 0% 28 0% 1,329,103 100% Shahpur District 835,918 83.68% 102,172 10.23% 48,046 4.81% 12,770 1.28% 13 0% 2 0% 998,921 100% Mianwali District 436,260 86.16% 62,814 12.41% 6,865 1.36% 358 0.07% 23 0% 1 0% 506,321 100% Lyallpur District 877,518 62.85% 204,059 14.61% 262,737 18.82% 51,948 3.72% 35 0% 8 0% 1,396,305 100% Jhang District 678,736 82.61% 129,889 15.81% 12,238 1.49% 763 0.09% 5 0% 0 0% 821,631 100% Multan District 1,157,911 78.01% 249,872 16.83% 61,628 4.15% 14,290 0.96% 552 0.04% 80 0.01% 1,484,333 100% Muzaffargarh District 616,074 86.42% 90,643 12.72% 5,882 0.83% 227 0.03% 0 0% 23 0% 712,849 100% Dera Ghazi Khan District 512,678 88.19% 67,407 11.59% 1,072 0.18% 87 0.01% 106 0.02% 0 0% 581,350 100% Bahawalpur State 1,098,814 81.93% 174,408 13% 46,945 3.5% 3,048 0.23% 351 0.03% 17,643 1.32% 1,341,209 100% Biloch Trans–Frontier Tract 40,084 99.6% 160 0.4% 2 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 40,246 100% Language As with religion, Punjab was a linguistically eclectically diverse province and region. In 1837, Persian had been abolished as the official language of Company administration and replaced by local Indian vernacular languages. In the Sikh Empire, Persian continued to be the official state language.[38] Shortly after annexing the Punjab in 1849, the Board of Administration canvassed local officials in each of the provinces's six divisions to decide which language was "best suited for the Courts and Public Business".[39] Officials in the western divisions recommended Persian whilst eastern officials suggested a shift to Urdu.[39] In September 1849 a two-language policy was instituted throughout the province. The language policy in the Punjab differed from other Indian provinces in that Urdu was not a widespread local vernacular. In 1849 John Lawrence noted "that Urdu is not the language of these districts and neither is Persian".[39] In 1854, the Board of Administration abruptly ended the two-language policy and Urdu was designated as the official language of government across the province. The decision was motivated by new civil service rules requiring all officials pass a test in the official language of their local court. In fear of potentially losing their jobs, officials in Persian districts petitioned the board to replace Persian with Urdu, believing Urdu the easier language to master.[40] Urdu remained the official administrative language until 1947. Officials, although aware that Punjabi was the colloquial language of the majority, instead favoured the use of Urdu for a number of reasons. Criticism of Punjabi included the belief that it was simply a form of patois, lacking any form of standardisation, and that "would be inflexible and barren, and incapable of expressing nice shades of meaning and exact logical ideas with the precision so essential in local proceedings."[40] Similar arguments had earlier been made about Bengali, Oriya and Hindustani; however, those languages were later adopted for local administration. Instead it is believed the advantages of Urdu served the administration greater. Urdu, and initially Persian, allowed the Company to recruit experienced administrators from elsewhere in India who did not speak Punjabi, to facilitate greater integration with other Indian territories which were administered with Urdu, and to help foster ties with local elites who spoke Persian and Urdu and could act as intermediaries with the wider populace.[40] As per the 1911 census, speakers of the Punjabi dialects and languages, including standard Punjabi along with Lahnda[l] formed just over three-quarters (75.93 per cent) of the total provincial population. Linguistic Demographics of Punjab Province Language Percentage 1911[12]: 370  Punjabi[m] 75.93% Western Hindi[n] 15.82% Western Pahari 4.11% Rajasthani 3.0% Balochi 0.29% Pashto 0.28% English 0.15% Other 0.42% Indo−Gangetic Plain West geographical division Including Hisar district, Loharu State, Rohtak district, Dujana State, Gurgaon district, Pataudi State, Delhi, Karnal district, Jalandhar district, Kapurthala State, Ludhiana district, Malerkotla State, Firozpur district, Faridkot State, Patiala State, Jind State, Nabha State, Lahore District, Amritsar district, and Gujranwala District. Linguistic Demographics of the Indo−Gangetic Plain West geographical division Language Percentage 1911[12]: 370  Punjabi[o] 64.49% Western Hindi[n] 29.56% Rajasthani 6.26% Western Pahari 0.87% English 0.11% Pashto 0.07% Other 0.13% Himalayan geographical division Including Nahan State, Simla district, Simla Hill States, Kangra district, Mandi State, Suket State, and Chamba State. Linguistic Demographics of the Himalayan geographical division Language Percentage 1911[12]: 370  Western Pahari 50.22% Punjabi 45.15% Western Hindi[n] 1.39% English 0.2% Rajasthani 0.02% Pashto 0.01% Other 3.0% Sub−Himalayan geographical division Including Ambala district, Kalsia State, Hoshiarpur district, Gurdaspur district, Sialkot District, Gujrat District, Jhelum District, Rawalpindi District, and Attock District. Linguistic Demographics of the Sub−Himalayan geographical division Language Percentage 1911[12]: 370  Punjabi[p] 88.77% Western Hindi[n] 8.81% Western Pahari 1.49% Pashto 0.5% English 0.3% Rajasthani 0.01% Other 0.12% North–West Dry Area geographical division Including Montgomery District, Shahpur District, Mianwali District, Lyallpur District, Jhang District, Multan District, Bahawalpur State, Muzaffargarh District, and Dera Ghazi Khan District. Linguistic Demographics of the North–West Dry Area geographical division Language Percentage 1911[12]: 370  Punjabi[q] 96.45% Balochi 1.25% Rajasthani 0.62% Western Hindi[n] 0.56% Pashto 0.53% English 0.05% Western Pahari 0.01% Other 0.53% Tribes See also: List of Punjabi tribes Jats in Delhi (1868). Rajputs in Delhi (1868). Brahmin in Lahore (c. 1799–1849). Left to right: Gurkha, Brahmin and Shudra (Chuhra-Chamar) in Shimla (1868). Arains in Lahore (1868). Tarkhans in Lahore (c. 1862–72). Gujjars in Delhi (c. 1859–69). Arora in Lahore (c. 1862–72). Kumhars in Lahore (c. 1859–69). Punjab Province was diverse, with the main castes represented alongside numerous subcastes and tribes (also known as Jāti or Barādarī), forming parts of the various ethnic groups in the province, contemporarily known as Punjabis, Saraikis, Haryanvis, Hindkowans, Dogras, Paharis, and others. Tribes of Punjab Province (1881–1931)[12]: 478 [41]: 348 [42]: 193–254 [43]: 367 [44]: 281–309  Tribe 1881 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931 Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Jat 4,223,885 20.31% 4,500,340 19.64% 4,884,285 20.04% 4,891,060 20.56% 5,453,747 21.73% 6,070,032 21.31% Rajput 1,648,426 7.92% 1,747,989 7.63% 1,784,402 7.32% 1,586,274 6.67% 1,853,025 7.38% 2,351,650 8.25% Brahman 1,040,771 5% 1,069,132 4.67% 1,077,252 4.42% 985,901 4.14% 994,529 3.96% 1,058,598 3.72% Chuhra 1,039,039 5% 1,175,504 5.13% 1,175,003 4.82% 912,998 3.84% 750,596 2.99% 681,359 2.39% Chamar 1,033,727 4.97% 1,147,913 5.01% 1,172,118 4.81% 1,075,941 4.52% 1,134,700 4.52% 1,102,465 3.87% Arain 795,471 3.82% 890,264 3.88% 1,003,698 4.12% 973,888 4.09% 1,086,455 4.33% 1,329,312 4.67% Julaha 593,199 2.85% 620,401 2.71% 651,800 2.67% 626,960 2.64% 643,403 2.56% 672,243 2.36% Tarkhan 564,385 2.71% 621,718 2.71% 675,361 2.77% 637,971 2.68% 614,912 2.45% 654,053 2.3% Gujjar 539,251 2.59% 600,198 2.62% 611,904 2.51% 595,598 2.5% 627,451 2.5% 696,442 2.44% Arora 538,465 2.59% 603,131 2.63% 647,945 2.66% 667,943 2.81% 707,495 2.82% 769,694 2.7% Kumhar 465,676 2.24% 515,331 2.25% 561,298 2.3% 542,906 2.28% 570,158 2.27% 62,0402 2.18% Bania 437,000 2.1% 442,000 1.93% 452,000 1.85% 404,000 1.7% 374,169 1.49% — — Jhinwar 418,499 2.01% 458,702 2% 450,362 1.85% 331,951 1.4% 371,418 1.48% 370,168 1.3% Khatri 392,413 1.89% 418,517 1.83% 433,579 1.78% 423,704 1.78% 452,902 1.8% 516,207 1.81% Awan 350,848 1.69% 389,402 1.7% 420,504 1.73% 425,450 1.79% 439,975 1.75% 538,760 1.89% Kanet 346,000 1.66% 370,000 1.61% 390,000 1.6% 404,000 1.7% 288,159 1.15% — — Mochi 334,034 1.61% 384,179 1.68% 408,314 1.68% 410,977 1.73% 429,242 1.71% 466,832 1.64% Baloch 331,851 1.6% 383,138 1.67% 466,645 1.92% 530,976 2.23% 531,084 2.12% 624,691 2.19% Nai 323,703 1.56% 371,144 1.62% 370,019 1.52% 344,845 1.45% 360,653 1.44% 380,657 1.34% Sheikh 293,606 1.41% 287,778 1.26% 264,656 1.09% 276,687 1.16% 244,800 0.98% 407,576 1.43% Lohar 291,506 1.4% 323,420 1.41% 347,099 1.42% 319,847 1.34% 322,195 1.28% 333,910 1.17% Teli 250,544 1.2% 291,513 1.27% 309,433 1.27% 284,505 1.2% 305,122 1.22% 339,124 1.19% Pathan 210,613 1.01% 221,262 0.97% 246,790 1.01% 272,547 1.15% 261,729 1.04% 345,438 1.21% Sayyid 200,728 0.96% 217,034 0.95% 230,802 0.95% 239,160 1.01% 247,087 0.98% 293,313 1.03% Mirasi 192,107 0.92% 230,700 1.01% 244,506 1% 223,093 0.94% 232,280 0.93% 242,685 0.85% Machhi 167,882 0.81% 196,574 0.86% 236,122 0.97% 239,702 1.01% 280,956 1.12% 314,791 1.1% Ahir 165,878 0.8% 188,838 0.82% 197,805 0.81% 201,299 0.85% 201,539 0.8% 221,897 0.78% Kashmiri 149,733 0.72% 141,280 0.62% 189,878 0.78% 175,334 0.74% 166,449 0.66% 200,066 0.7% Saini 147,183 0.71% 120,507 0.53% 121,722 0.5% 107,759 0.45% 120,376 0.48% 157,301 0.55% Sunar 145,903 0.7% 164,087 0.72% 174,628 0.72% 155,993 0.66% 127,090 0.51% 159,655 0.56% Kamboh 129,468 0.62% 150,646 0.66% 173,780 0.71% 171,536 0.72% 180,870 0.72% 239,385 0.84% Dhobi 123,767 0.6% 139,421 0.61% 142,342 0.58% 151,566 0.64% 163,908 0.65% 174,519 0.61% Meo 112,566 0.54% 115,916 0.51% 133,300 0.55% 120,752 0.51% 111,564 0.44% 124,821 0.44% Faqir 111,995 0.54% 300,214 1.31% 362,266 1.49% 262,511 1.1% 270,070 1.08% 283,634 1% Ghirath 110,507 0.53% 118,631 0.52% 121,718 0.5% 121,107 0.51% 117,949 0.47% 122,785 0.43% Chhimba 100,448 0.48% 141,819 0.62% 147,152 0.6% 124,090 0.52% 120,695 0.48% 92,491 0.32% Qassab 92,571 0.45% 109,435 0.48% 114,158 0.47% 117,363 0.49% 120,820 0.48% 127,198 0.45% Rathi 82,957 0.4% 100,656 0.44% 37,793 0.16% 97,763 0.41% 118,015 0.47% 134,093 0.47% Dagi & Koli 78,559 0.38% 167,772 0.73% 153,990 0.63% 172,269 0.72% 165,159 0.66% 182,056 0.64% Mughal 92,000 0.44% 118,000 0.51% 98,000 0.4% 99,000 0.42% 88,951 0.35% — — Jogi-Rawal 90,000 0.43% 91,000 0.4% 76,000 0.31% 83,000 0.35% 80,577 0.32% — — Dumna 66,169 0.32% 64,046 0.28% 53,394 0.22% 72,250 0.3% 36,669 0.15% 32,055 0.11% Dhanuk 66,000 0.32% 74,000 0.32% 77,000 0.32% 83,000 0.35% 87,278 0.35% — — Dogar 63,000 0.01% 70,000 0.01% 75,000 0.01% 68,000 0.29% 74,369 0.3% — — Khoja 62,000 0.3% 90,000 0.39% 99,000 0.41% 63,000 0.26% 87,461 0.35% — — Mallah 62,000 0.3% 77,000 0.34% 73,000 0.3% 78,000 0.33% 74,233 0.3% — — Mali 58,672 0.28% 95,989 0.42% 105,956 0.43% 96,883 0.41% 92,933 0.37% 72,299 0.25% Bharai 56,000 0.27% 67,000 0.29% 66,000 0.27% 58,000 0.24% 61,721 0.25% — — Barwala 55,000 0.26% 64,000 0.28% 69,000 0.28% 64,000 0.27% 65,907 0.26% — — Mahtam 50,313 0.24% 56,982 0.25% 82,719 0.34% 81,805 0.34% 94,325 0.38% 64,004 0.22% Labana 47,000 0.23% 55,000 0.24% 56,000 0.23% 58,000 0.24% 56,316 0.22% — — Megh 37,373 0.18% 41,068 0.18% 44,315 0.18% 39,549 0.17% 30,465 0.12% 22,539 0.08% Khokhar 36,000 0.17% 130,000 0.57% 108,000 0.44% 60,000 0.25% 69,169 0.28% — — Darzi 30,190 0.15% 36,919 0.16% 39,164 0.16% 35,508 0.15% 38,256 0.15% 45,688 0.16% Bawaria 22,013 0.11% 26,420 0.12% 29,112 0.12% 32,849 0.14% 34,807 0.14% 32,508 0.11% Sansi 19,920 0.1% 22,218 0.1% 26,000 0.11% 24,439 0.1% 17,402 0.07% 28,262 0.1% Od 15,652 0.08% 22,450 0.1% 26,160 0.11% 31,690 0.13% 28,502 0.11% 32,719 0.11% Sarera 10,792 0.05% 11,366 0.05% 9,587 0.04% 10,743 0.05% 9,873 0.04% 11,230 0.04% Pakhiwara 3,741 0.02% 3,674 0.02% 3,595 0.01% 3,711 0.02% 2,801 0.01% 3,100 0.01% Ghosi 2,221 0.01% 2,652 0.01% 3,012 0.01% 2,419 0.01% 502 0% 3,836 0.01% Harni 1,318 0.01% 4,157 0.02% 3,462 0.01% 3,360 0.01% 2,988 0.01% 3,387 0.01% Maliar — — — — 81,000 0.33% 90,000 0.38% 88,755 0.35% — — Mussalli — — — — 57,367 0.24% 309,543 1.3% 323,549 1.29% 412,295 1.45% Qureshi — — — — 53,000 0.22% 71,000 0.3% 97,625 0.39% — — Aggarwal — — — — — — 339,494 1.43% 349,322 1.39% 373,014 1.31% Bagaria — — — — — — 1,262 0.01% 1,619 0.01% 2,446 0.01% Total population 20,800,995 100% 22,915,894 100% 24,367,113 100% 23,791,841 100% 25,101,514 100% 28,490,869 100% Literacy Literacy Rate by Religious Community in Punjab Province (1941)[13]: 65  Religion % Total Literacy % Total Male Literacy % Total Female Literacy Jains 41.93% 29.03% 12.90% Sikhs 17.03% 12.13% 4.90% Hindus 16.35% 11.89% 4.46% Christians 7.76% 4.69% 3.07% Muslims 6.97% 5.52% 1.45% Others 7.62% 6.85% 0.77% Total 10.87% 8.13% 2.74% Administrative divisions Districts of Punjab with Muslim (green) and non-Muslim (pink) majorities, as per 1941 census Punjab (British India): British Territory and Princely States Division Districts in British Territory / Princely States Rawalpindi Division AttockJhelumRawalpindiShahpur Lahore Division AmritsarGujranwalaGujratGurdaspurLahoreLyallpurMontgomerySheikhupuraSialkot Multan Division Dera Ghazi KhanJhangMianwaliMultanMuzaffargarh Jullundur Division FerozeporeHoshiarpurJullundurKangraLudhiana Delhi Division AmbalaDelhiGurgaonHissarKarnalRohtakShimla Total area, British Territory 97,209 square miles Native States PatialaJindNabhaBahawalpurSirmurLoharuDujanaPataudiKalsiaSimla Hill StatesKapurthalaMandiMalerkotlaSuketFaridkotSibaChambaKahlur (Bilaspur) Total area, Native States 36,532 square miles Total area, Punjab 133,741 square miles Agriculture Within a few years of its annexation, the Punjab was regarded as British India's model agricultural province. From the 1860s onwards, agricultural prices and land values soared in the Punjab. This stemmed from increasing political security and improvements in infrastructure and communications. New cash crops such as wheat, tobacco, sugar cane and cotton were introduced. By the 1920s the Punjab produced a tenth of India's total cotton crop and a third of its wheat crop. Per capita output of all the crops in the province increased by approximately 45 percent between 1891 and 1921, a growth contrasting to agricultural crises in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa during the period.[45] The Punjab Agricultural College and Research Institute became the first higher educational agricultural institution in the Punjab when established in 1906. Rapid agricultural growth, combined with access to easy credit for landowners, led to a growing crisis of indebtedness.[46] When landowners were unable to pay down their loans, urban based moneylenders took advantage of the law to foreclose debts of mortgaged land.[46] This led to a situation where land increasingly passed to absentee moneylenders who had little connection to the villages were the land was located. The colonial government recognised this as a potential threat to the stability of the province, and a split emerged in the government between paternalists who favoured intervention to ensure order, and those who opposed state intervention in private property relations.[45] The paternalists emerged victorious and the Punjab Land Alienation Act, 1900 prevented urban commercial castes, who were overwhelmingly Hindu, from permanently acquiring land from statutory agriculturalist tribes, who were mainly Muslim and Sikh.[47] Accompanied by the increasing franchise of the rural population, this interventionist approach led to a long lasting impact on the political landscape of the province. The agricultural lobby remained loyal to the government, and rejected communalism in common defence of its privileges against urban moneylenders.[45] This position was entrenched by the Unionist Party. The Congress Party's opposition to the Act led to it being marginalised in the Punjab, reducing its influence more so than in any other province, and inhibiting its ability to challenge colonial rule locally. The political dominance of the Unionist Party would remain until partition, and significantly it was only on the collapse of its power on the eve of independence from Britain, that communal violence began to spread in rural Punjab.[45] Army In the immediate aftermath of annexation, the Sikh Khalsa Army was disbanded, and soldiers were required to surrender their weapons and return to agricultural or other pursuits.[15] The Bengal Army, keen to utilise the highly trained ex-Khalsa army troops began to recruit from the Punjab for Bengal infantry units stationed in the province. However opposition to the recruitment of these soldiers spread and resentment emerged from sepoys of the Bengal Army towards the incursion of Punjabis into their ranks. In 1851, the Punjab Irregular Force also known as the 'Piffars' was raised. Initially they consisted of one garrison and four mule batteries, four regiments of cavalry, eleven of infantry and the Corps of Guides, totalling approximately 13,000 men.[48] The gunners and infantry were mostly Punjabi, many from the Khalsa Army, whilst the cavalry had a considerable Hindustani presence.[48] During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, eighteen new regiments were raised from the Punjab which remained loyal to the East India Company throughout the crisis in the Punjab and United Provinces.[49] By June 1858, of the 80,000 native troops in the Bengal Army, 75,000 were Punjabi of which 23,000 were Sikh.[50] In the aftermath of the rebellion, a thorough re-organisation of the army took place. Henceforth recruitment into the British Indian Army was restricted to loyal peoples and provinces. Punjabi Sikhs emerged as a particularly favoured martial race to serve the army.[51] In the midst of The Great Game, and fearful of a Russian invasion of British India, the Punjab was regarded of significant strategic importance as a frontier province. In addition to their loyalty and a belief in their suitability to serve in harsh conditions, Punjabi recruits were favoured as they could be paid at the local service rate, whereas soldiers serving on the frontier from more distant lands had to be paid extra foreign service allowances.[52] By 1875, of the entire Indian army, a third of recruits hailed from the Punjab.[53] In 1914, three fifths of the Indian army came from the Punjab, despite the region constituting approximately one tenth of the total population of British India.[53] During the First World War, Punjabi Sikhs alone accounted for one quarter of all armed personnel in India.[51] Military service provided access to the wider world, and personnel were deployed across the British Empire from Malaya, the Mediterranean and Africa.[51] Upon completion of their terms of service, these personnel were often amongst the first to seek their fortunes abroad.[51] At the outbreak of the Second World War, 48 percent of the Indian army came from the province.[54] In Jhelum, Rawalpindi and Attock, the percentage of the total male population who enlisted reached fifteen percent.[55] The Punjab continued to be the main supplier of troops throughout the war, contributing 36 percent of the total Indian troops who served in the conflict.[56] The huge proportion of Punjabis in the army meant that a significant amount of military expenditure went to Punjabis and in turn resulted in an abnormally high level of resource input in the Punjab.[57] It has been suggested that by 1935 if remittances of serving officers were combined with income from military pensions, more than two thirds of Punjab's land revenue could have been paid out of military incomes.[57] Military service further helped reduce the extent of indebtedness across the Province. In Hoshiarpur, a notable source of military personnel, in 1920 thirty percent of proprietors were debt free compared to the region's average of eleven percent.[57] In addition, the benefits of military service and the perception that the government was benevolent towards soldiers, affected the latter's attitudes towards the British.[50] The loyalty of recruited peasantry and the influence of military groups in rural areas across the province limited the reach of the nationalist movement in the province.[50] Communications and transport In 1853, the Viceroy Lord Dalhousie issued a minute stressing the military importance of railways across India.[58] In the Punjab, however, it was initially strategic commercial interests which drove investment in railways and communications from 1860.[58] Independent railway companies emerged, such as the Scinde, Punjab and Delhi railways to build and operate new lines. In 1862, the first section of railway in the Punjab was constructed between Lahore and Amritsar, and Lahore Junction railway station opened. Lines were opened between Lahore and Multan in 1864, and Amritsar and Delhi in 1870.[58] The Scinde, Punjab and Delhi railways merged to form the Scinde, Punjab & Delhi Railway in 1870, creating a link between Karachi and Lahore via Multan. The Punjab Northern State Railway linked Lahore and Peshawar in 1883. By 1886, the independent railways had amalgamated into North Western State Railway.[58] The construction of railway lines and the network of railway workshops generated employment opportunities, which in turn led to increased immigration into cantonment towns.[58] As connectivity increased across the province, it facilitated the movement of goods, and increased human interaction. It has been observed that the Ferozpur, Lahore and Amritsar began to develop into one composite cultural triangle due to the ease of connectivity between them.[58] Similarly barriers of spoken dialects eroded over time, and cultural affinities were increasingly fostered.[58] Education In 1854, the Punjab education department was instituted with a policy to provide secular education in all government managed institutions.[59] Privately run institutions would only receive grants-in-aid in return for providing secular instruction.[59] By 1864 this had resulted in a situation whereby all grants-in-aid to higher education schools and colleges were received by institutions under European management, and no indigenous owned schools received government help.[59] In the early 1860s, a number of educational colleges were established, including Lawrence College, Murree, King Edward Medical University, Government College, Lahore, Glancy Medical College and Forman Christian College. In 1882, Gottlieb Wilhelm Leitner published a damning report on the state of education in the Punjab. He lamented the failure to reconcile government run schools with traditional indigenous schools, and noted a steady decline in the number of schools across the province since annexation.[60] He noted in particular how Punjabi Muslim's avoided government run schools due to the lack of religious subjects taught in them, observing how at least 120,000 Punjabis attended schools unsupported by the state and describing it as 'a protest by the people against our system of education.'[61] Leitner had long advocated the benefits of oriental scholarship, and the fusion of government education with religious instruction. In January 1865 he had established the Anjuman-i-Punjab, a subscription based association aimed at using a European style of learning to promote useful knowledge, whilst also reviving traditional scholarship in Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit.[62] In 1884, a reorganisation of the Punjab education system occurred, introducing measures tending towards decentralisation of control over education and the promotion of an indigenous education agency. As a consequence several new institutions were encouraged in the province. The Arya Samaj opened a college in Lahore in 1886, the Sikhs opened the Khalsa College whilst the Anjuman-i-Himayat-i-Islam stepped in to organise Muslim education.[63] In 1886, the Punjab Chiefs' College, later renamed Aitchison College, was opened to further the education of the elite classes. Government See also: Prime Minister of the Punjab Early administration See also: List of Governors of Punjab (British India) In 1849, a Board of Administration was put in place to govern the newly annexed province. The Board was led by a President and two assistants. Beneath them Commissioners acted as Superintendents of revenue and police and exercised the civil appellate and the original criminal powers of Sessions Judges, whilst Deputy Commissioners were given subordinate civil, criminal and fiscal powers.[64] In 1853, the Board of Administration was abolished, and authority was invested in a single Chief Commissioner. The Government of India Act 1858 led to further restructuring and the office of Lieutenant-Governor replaced that of Chief Commissioner. Although The Indian Councils Act, 1861 laid the foundation for the establishment of a local legislature in the Punjab, the first legislature was constituted in 1897. It consisted of a body of nominated officials and non-officials and was presided over by the Lieutenant-Governor. The first council lasted for eleven years until 1909. The Morley-Minto Reforms led to an elected members complementing the nominated officials in subsequent councils.[65] Punjab Legislative Council and Assembly The Government of India Act 1919 introduced the system of dyarchy across British India and led to the implementation of the first Punjab Legislative Council in 1921. At the same time the office of lieutenant governor was replaced with that of governor. The initial Council had ninety three members, seventy per cent of which were elected and the rest nominated.[65] A president was elected by the Council to preside over the meetings. Between 1921 and 1936, there were four terms of the Council.[65] Council Inaugurated Dissolved President(s) First Council 8 January 1921 27 October 1923 Sir Montagu Butler and Herbert Casson Second Council 2 January 1924 27 October 1926 Herbert Casson, Sir Abdul Qadir and Sir Shahab-ud-Din Virk Third Council 3 January 1927 26 July 1930 Sir Shahab-ud-Din Virk Fourth Council 24 October 1930 10 November 1936 Sir Shahab-ud-Din Virk and Sir Chhotu Ram In 1935, the Government of India Act 1935 replaced dyarchy with increased provincial autonomy. It introduced direct elections, and enabled elected Indian representatives to form governments in the provincial assemblies. The Punjab Legislative Council was replaced by a Punjab Legislative Assembly, and the role of President with that of a Speaker. Membership of the Assembly was fixed at 175 members, and it was intended to sit for five years.[65] First Assembly Election See also: 1937 Punjab Provincial Assembly election The first election was held in 1937 and was won outright by the Unionist Party. Its leader, Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan was asked by the Governor, Sir Herbert Emerson to form a Ministry and he chose a cabinet consisting of three Muslims, two Hindus and a Sikh.[66] Sir Sikandar died in 1942 and was succeeded as Premier by Khizar Hayat Khan Tiwana. Position Name Premier Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan Revenue Minister Sir Sundar Singh Majithia Development Minister Sir Chhotu Ram Finance Minister Manohar Lal Public Works Minister Khizar Hayat Khan Tiwana Education Minister Mian Abdul Haye Second Assembly Election See also: 1946 Punjab Provincial Assembly election The next election was held in 1946. The Muslim League won the most seats, winning 73 out of a total of 175. However a coalition led by the Unionist Party and consisting of the Congress Party and Akali Party were able to secure an overall majority. A campaign of civil disobedience by the Muslim League followed, lasting six weeks, and led to the resignation of Sir Khizar Tiwana and the collapse of the coalition government on 2 March 1947.[67] The Muslim League however were unable to attract the support of other minorities to form a coalition government themselves.[68] Amid this stalemate the Governor Sir Evan Jenkins assumed control of the government and remained in charge until the independence of India and Pakistan.[68] Coat of arms Arms of British Punjab Crescat e Fluviis meaning, Let it grow from the rivers was the Latin motto used in the coat of arms for Punjab Province. As per the book History of the Sikhs written by Khushwant Singh, it means Strength from the Rivers. See also History of Punjab British Raj List of misls of the Sikh Confederacy Punjab (region) Sikh Empire Notes  Including Attock District, Jhelum District, Rawalpindi District, and Shahpur District  Including Amritsar District, Gujranwala District, Gujrat District, Gurdaspur District, Lahore District, Lyallpur District, Montgomery District, Sheikhupura District, and Sialkot District  Including Dera Ghazi Khan District, Jhang District, Mianwali District, Multan District, and Muzaffargarh District  Including Firozpur district, Hoshiarpur district, Jalandhar district, Kangra district, and Ludhiana district  Including Ambala district, Delhi district, Gurgaon district, Hisar district, Karnal district, Rohtak district, and Shimla. Later renamed Ambala Division in 1911, following separation of Delhi district from Punjab Province.  Including Patiala State, Jind State, Nabha State, Bahawalpur State, Sirmur State, Loharu State, Dujana, Pataudi State, Kalsia, Simla Hill States, Kapurthala State, Mandi State, Malerkotla State, Suket State, Faridkot State, Siba State, Chamba State, and Kahlur (Bilaspur)  Including Ad-Dharmis  Delhi district is made into a separate territory  1941 figure taken from census data by combining the total population of all districts (Lahore, Sialkot, Gujranwala, Sheikhupura, Gujrat, Shahpur, Jhelum, Rawalpindi, Attock, Mianwali, Montgomery, Lyallpur, Jhang, Multan, Muzaffargargh, Dera Ghazi Khan), one tehsil (Shakargarh – then part of Gurdaspur District), one princely state (Bahawalpur), and one tract (Biloch Trans–Frontier) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the western side of the Radcliffe Line. See 1941 census data here: [13]: 42  Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and tract would ultimately make up the subdivision of West Punjab, which also later included Bahawalpur. The state that makes up this region in the contemporary era is Punjab, Pakistan.  Including Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Tribals, others, or not stated  1941 figure taken from census data by combining the total population of all districts (Hisar, Rohtak, Gurgaon, Karnal, Jalandhar, Ludhiana, Firozpur, Amritsar, Simla, Kangra, Ambala, Hoshiarpur, and Gurdaspur (minus Shakargarh Tehsil)), and princely states (Loharu, Dujana, Pataudi, Kalsia, Kapurthala, Malerkotla, Faridkot, Patiala, Jind, Nabha, Sirmoor, Simla Hill, Bilaspur, Mandi, Suket, and Chamba) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the eastern side of the Radcliffe Line. See 1941 census data here: [13]: 42  Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and princely states would ultimately make up the subdivision of East Punjab, which also included Patiala and East Punjab States Union, Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh, and Bilaspur State. The states that make up this region in the contemporary era are Punjab, India, Chandigarh, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh.  Western Punjabi languages and dialects including Saraiki, Hindko and Pahari-Pothwari, and other related languages or dialects  Standard Punjabi: 58.34% Lahnda:[l] 17.59%  Including Hindustani (Hindi and Urdu), Braj Bhasha, Haryanvi, and other related languages or dialects  Standard Punjabi: 63.49% Lahnda:[l] 1.0%  Standard Punjabi: 74.01% Lahnda:[l] 14.76%  Lahnda:[l] 60.31% Standard Punjabi: 36.14% Jat Sikh (or Jatt Sikh) are an ethnoreligious group and a subgroup of the Jat people and the Sikh religious group from the Indian subcontinent. They are one of the dominant communities in the Punjab, owing to their large land holdings.[2] They form an estimated 20%–25% of the population of the Indian state of Punjab.[3][4][5] They form at least half[6][7] of the Sikh population in Punjab, with some sources estimating them to be about 60%[7][8] to 66%[9] of the Sikh population. History Guru Nanak (left) seated and in-discussion with Ajita Randhawa (right), an early Jat disciple of Sikhism. Mardana is in the foreground. Painting from the B-40 Janamsakhi and was painted in 1733 by Alam Chand Raj. Initially, some Jats started to follow the teachings of Guru Nanak, which did much to remove social barriers created by the sāvarṇa caste society.[10][11]: 59  Jats were previously indifferent towards deep religious affairs.[11]: 93  While followers important to Sikh tradition like Baba Buddha were among the earliest significant historical Sikh figures, and significant numbers of conversions occurred as early as the time of Guru Angad (1504-1552),[12] the first large-scale conversions of Jats is commonly held to have begun during the time of Guru Arjan (1563-1606).[12][13]: 265  While touring the countryside of eastern Punjab, he founded several important towns like Tarn Taran Sahib, Kartarpur, and Hargobindpur which functioned as social and economic hubs, and together with the community-funded completion of the Darbar Sahib to house the Guru Granth Sahib and serve as a rallying point and center for Sikh activity, established the beginnings of a self-contained Sikh community, which was especially swelled with the region's Jat peasantry.[12] They formed the vanguard of Sikh resistance against the Mughal Empire from the 18th century onwards. Whilst W. H. McLeod was of the position that Jats only began to convert in large numbers to Sikhism and influence the community by the time of Guru Amar Das and certainly by the time of Guru Arjan, Pashaura Singh and Louis E. Fenech on the other hand opine that large scale conversions of Jats into Sikhism came about during Guru Nanak's time settled down in Kartarpur and living an agricultural lifestyle.[14] It has been postulated, though inconclusively, that the increased militarisation of the Sikh panth following the martyrdom of Guru Arjan (beginning during the era of Guru Hargobind and continuing after) and its large Jat presence may have reciprocally influenced each other.[15][full citation needed][16] At least eight of the 12 Misls of the Sikh Confederacy were led by Jat Sikhs,[17] who would form the vast majority of Sikh chiefs.[18] According to censuses in gazetteers published during the colonial period in the early 20th century, further waves of Jat conversions, from Hinduism to Sikhism, continued during the preceding decades.[19][20] The relationship between the Hindu, Muslim and Sikh communities of the Punjab region, and between communities such as the Jats and the Rajputs, has been ambiguous over many centuries. The various groups often claim similar origins while asserting their distinctiveness.[21] Influence of Sikhism on Jats "Jut women & Sikh priest of Jalundhur reading Grunth" (Guru Granth Sahib), circa 1860 painting. Irfan Habib has argued that Sikhism did much to uplift the social status of Jat people, who were previously regarded in the Punjab as being of shudra or vaishya status in the Hindu ritual ranking system of varṇa.[22] Kishan Singh says: A serious contradiction afflicts the Jat farmer of the Punjab. He has unflinching faith in Guru Gobind Singh, yet at the same time he is imbued with traits typical of a Jat. There are two sides to the Jat's known traits. One has a positive effect in the sense that it saves him from feeling inferior; and the other side is negative. It makes him overbearing and arrogant which is a disease. A Jat's negative traits can be suppressed only through the true spirit of Sikhism.[23] Army recruits Major A.E Barstow comments, that due to their diet and their fondness for wrestling and weightlifting, they possessed good physical attributes for soldiery. According to R. W. Falcon, Jat Sikhs (alongside other Sikhs) were seen as a good source for recruitment.[24] According to Captain A. H. Bingley they were particularly loyal soldiers.[25] The Jat Sikh community has constituted an important source of recruits for the Indian Army.[26] Many serve in the Indian Army, including the Jat Regiment, Sikh Regiment, Rajputana Rifles and the Grenadiers, where they have won many of the highest military awards for gallantry and bravery.[27] Agriculture 19th century painting of Punjabi farmers irrigating fields In Punjab (India), Jat Sikhs are associated with agricultural pursuits[28][29] and land ownership. They own more than 80%,[8] and possibly as much as 95%[30] of available agricultural land in Punjab. They often reside in the rural areas, and are economically influential in the state.[8] Clans 'Map of Sikh Districts, Showing the Distribution of Jat Sikh Tribes, With Various Other Tribes and Castes' (1896) by Robert Worgan Falcon Jat Sikhs have various clans, known as a got (clan or sub-caste; gotra in Hindi), which come under a particular zaat (tribe or caste; jati in Hindi), in Punjabi.[31][32][33][34] These clans generally claim descent from a common male ancestor,[32] are usually exogamous (with some exceptions),[note 1][35] and historically entire villages, and even clusters of villages, were often inhabited by entirely by a single clan.[31] The purpose for this was to provide protection for members of a clan by watching over each-other and uniting as a common group against any potential adversary.[31] Another reason is that members of a clan socially preferred their neighbours to also be from the same background as them.[31] Some Jat Sikh clans overlap with Hindu and Muslim Jat clans and clans may also be shared with other caste groups, such as Rajputs.[36][37][38][39] Clans can be further subdivided by muhin (sub-clan or locality) and patti (street).[40] List of common Jat Sikh clans Aulakh[41][42] Bains[41][42] Baiks[42] Bajwa[42] Bal[42] Bhalli[42] Bharai[36][42] Bhullar[37][42] Brar[37][42] Buttar[42] Chahal[35][42] Chatha[41][42] Cheema[41][42] Deol[37] Dhadwal[43] Dhaliwal[42] Dhillon[35][42] Dhindsa[42] Dhingra[42] Gandhi[42] Gill[31][44][42] Grewal[31][42] Ghuman[42] Her[42] Kahlon[41] Kang[41][42] Karg[42] Kars[42] Khaira[41] Maan[35][41][42] Margat[42] Mahal[37][42] Mangat[42] Odi[42] Pannu[42] Pavun[42] Punia[42] Randhawa[41][42] Saharia[42] Sahi[42] Sandhu[35][42] Sara[41][42] Sarai[41] Sahota[45] Sidhu[35][41][42] saggu Sohal[42] Toor[42] Uppal[42] Virk[41][42] Virla[42] Warraich[42] Notable people Ranjit Singh, the Jat Sikh[46] Emperor of the Sikh Empire Nawab Kapur Singh, leader of Singhpuria Misl.[17] Baba Deep Singh first head of Misl Shaheedan Tarna Dal.[47] Kahn Singh Nabha,[48] Sikh scholar Heera Singh Sandhu, founder of Nakai Misl[49] Sada Kaur, chief of the Kanhaiya Misl[49] Datar Kaur, queen consort of Maharaja Ranjit Singh[50] Jind Kaur, regent of the Sikh Empire[51] See also Jat people Khalsa Misl Sidhu (Punjabi: ਸਿੱਧੂ) is a Punjabi Jat clan found in Punjab.[1][2][3][4][5] History Origin According to oral history, the clan descends from a Bhatti Rajput progenitor named Sidhu Rao, whom had wed a woman from a Gill Jat background.[6] Their descendants are thus the Sidhu Jats.[6] The Sidhu-Brar clan is descended from Bhatti Rajputs through Rawal Jaisal.[7] [8] Sikh period The Sidhu clan held sway in the Ferozepur area in the late mediaeval period.[9] Chaudhary Phul of the Sidhu-Brar clan established the Phulkian Misl, one of the misls (confederacies) of the Sikh Confederacy. His descendants, the Phulkian Maharajas, became the kings of the princely states of Faridkot, Jind, Nabha, Malaudh and Patiala.[10][11]
  • Condition: Used
  • Type: Photograph
  • Year of Production: 1929
  • Theme: People, Portrait
  • Featured Person/Artist: GURUCHANRAN SINGH OF NABHA
  • Original/Licensed Reprint: Original
  • Subject: Men

PicClick Insights - Sikh Maharaja Singh Guruchanran Of Nabha Vintage Original Photo Scarce Punjab PicClick Exclusive

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