Israel Palestine Country Map Flag Gold Pendant West Bank Jewellery Stylish Icon

£0.01 1 Bid 5d 13h 38m 52s, £2.49 Shipping, 30-Day Returns, eBay Money Back Guarantee
Seller: lasvegasormonaco ✉️ (3,187) 99.7%, Location: Manchester, Take a look at my other items, GB, Ships to: WORLDWIDE, Item: 266721681803 Israel Palestine Country Map Flag Gold Pendant West Bank Jewellery Stylish Icon. 31 December 2014. Archived from the original on 28 November 2018. Retrieved 19 March 2018. Category: Israeli–Palestinian peace process. Treister, Mikhail (2004). Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia.                                                                               Palestine Country Flag Necklace Gold Plated Palestine Flag Israel Map Pendant with Gold Plated Chain Dimensions of the Pendant is 45mm x 15mm x 1 mm and the chain is 500 mm long In Excellent Condition Would make an Nice Gift or Collectable Keepsake

Comes from a pet and smoke free home

Sorry about the poor quality photos.  They don't  do the necklace  justice which looks a lot better in real life Like all my Auctions Bidding starts a a penny with no reserve... if your the only bidder you win it for 1p...Grab a Bargain!
Click Here to Check out my Other Similar Items & Coins Bid with Confidence - Check My 100% Positive Feedback from over 2,000 Satisfied Customers I have over 10 years of Ebay Selling Experience - So Why Not Treat Yourself? I have got married recently and need to raise funds to meet the costs also we are planning to move into a house together  I always combined postage on multiple items Instant Feedback Automatically Left Immediately after Receiving Payment All Items Sent out within 24 hours of Receiving Payment.

Overseas Bidders Please Note Surface Mail Delivery Times >

Western Europe takes up to 2 weeks, 

Eastern Europe up to 5 weeks, 

North America up to 6 weeks, 

South America, Africa and Asia up to 8 weeks and 

Australasia up to 12 weeks

Thanks for Looking and Best of Luck with the Bidding!!

Also if bidding from overseas and you want your item tracked please select the International Signed for Postage Option For that Interesting Conversational Piece, A Birthday Present, Christmas Gift, A Comical Item to Cheer Someone Up or That Unique Perfect Gift for the Person Who has Everything....You Know Where to Look for a Bargain!

XXXX - DO NOT CLICK HERE - XXXX  

Click Here to Add me to Your List of Favourite Sellers

If You Have any Questions Please Message me through ebay and  I Will Reply ASAP

"A Thing of Beauty is a Joy for ever"

So go ahead and treat yourself! With my free returns there is no risk!

Thanks for Looking and Hope to deal soon :)

I have sold items to coutries such as Afghanistan * Albania * Algeria * American Samoa (US) * Andorra * Angola * Anguilla (GB) * Antigua and Barbuda * Argentina * Armenia * Aruba (NL) * Australia * Austria * Azerbaijan * Bahamas * Bahrain * Bangladesh * Barbados * Belarus * Belgium * Belize * Benin * Bermuda (GB) * Bhutan * Bolivia * Bonaire (NL)  * Bosnia and Herzegovina * Botswana * Bouvet Island (NO) * Brazil * British Indian Ocean Territory (GB) * British Virgin Islands (GB) * Brunei * Bulgaria * Burkina Faso * Burundi * Cambodia * Cameroon * Canada * Cape Verde * Cayman Islands (GB) * Central African Republic * Chad * Chile * China * Christmas Island (AU) * Cocos Islands (AU) * Colombia * Comoros * Congo * Democratic Republic of the Congo * Cook Islands (NZ) * Coral Sea Islands Territory (AU) * Costa Rica * Croatia  * Curaçao (NL)  * Cyprus * Czech Republic * Denmark * Djibouti * Dominica * Dominican Republic * East Timor * Ecuador * Egypt * El Salvador * Equatorial Guinea * Eritrea * Estonia * Ethiopia * Falkland Islands (GB) * Faroe Islands (DK) * Fiji Islands * Finland * France * French Guiana (FR) * French Polynesia (FR) * French Southern Lands (FR) * Gabon * Gambia * Georgia * Germany * Ghana * Gibraltar (GB) * Greece * Greenland (DK) * Grenada * Guadeloupe (FR) * Guam (US) * Guatemala * Guernsey (GB) * Guinea * Guinea-Bissau * Guyana * Haiti * Heard and McDonald Islands (AU) * Honduras * Hong Kong (CN) * Hungary * Iceland * India * Indonesia  * Iraq * Ireland * Isle of Man (GB) * Israel * Italy * Ivory Coast * Jamaica * Jan Mayen (NO) * Japan * Jersey (GB) * Jordan * Kazakhstan * Kenya * Kiribati * Kosovo * Kuwait * Kyrgyzstan * Laos * Latvia * Lebanon * Lesotho * Liberia * Libya * Liechtenstein * Lithuania * Luxembourg * Macau (CN) * Macedonia * Madagascar * Malawi * Malaysia * Maldives * Mali * Malta * Marshall Islands * Martinique (FR) * Mauritania * Mauritius * Mayotte (FR) * Mexico * Micronesia * Moldova * Monaco * Mongolia * Montenegro * Montserrat (GB) * Morocco * Mozambique * Myanmar * Namibia * Nauru * Navassa (US) * Nepal * Netherlands * New Caledonia (FR) * New Zealand * Nicaragua * Niger * Nigeria * Niue (NZ) * Norfolk Island (AU) *  Korea * Northern Cyprus * Northern Mariana Islands (US) * Norway * Oman * Pakistan * Palau * Palestinian Authority * Panama * Papua New Guinea * Paraguay * Peru * Philippines * Pitcairn Island (GB) * Poland * Portugal * Puerto Rico (US) * Qatar * Reunion (FR) * Romania * Russia * Rwanda * Saba (NL)  * Saint Barthelemy (FR) * Saint Helena (GB) * Saint Kitts and Nevis * Saint Lucia * Saint Martin (FR) * Saint Pierre and Miquelon (FR) * Saint Vincent and the Grenadines * Samoa * San Marino * Sao Tome and Principe * Saudi Arabia * Senegal * Serbia * Seychelles * Sierra Leone * Singapore * Sint Eustatius (NL)  * Sint Maarten (NL)  * Slovakia * Slovenia * Solomon Islands * Somalia * South Africa * South Georgia (GB) * South Korea * South Sudan * Spain * Sri Lanka * Sudan * Suriname * Svalbard (NO) * Swaziland * Sweden * Switzerland ** Taiwan * Tajikistan * Tanzania * Thailand * Togo * Tokelau (NZ) * Tonga * Trinidad and Tobago * Tunisia * Turkey * Turkmenistan * Turks and Caicos Islands (GB) * Tuvalu * U.S. Minor Pacific Islands (US) * U.S. Virgin Islands (US) * Uganda * Ukraine * United Arab Emirates * United Kingdom * United States * Uruguay * Uzbekistan * Vanuatu * Vatican City * Venezuela * Vietnam * Wallis and Futuna (FR) * Yemen * Zambia * Zimbabwe and major cities such as Tokyo, Yokohama, New York City, Sao Paulo, Seoul, Mexico City, Osaka, Kobe, Kyoto, Manila, Mumbai, Delhi, Jakarta, Lagos, Kolkata, Cairo, Los Angeles, Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro, Moscow, Shanghai, Karachi, Paris, Istanbul, Nagoya, Beijing, Chicago, London, Shenzhen, Essen, Düsseldorf, Tehran, Bogota, Lima, Bangkok, Johannesburg, East Rand, Chennai, Taipei, Baghdad, Santiago, Bangalore, Hyderabad, St Petersburg, Philadelphia, Lahore, Kinshasa, Miami, Ho Chi Minh City, Madrid, Tianjin, Kuala Lumpur, Toronto, Milan, Shenyang, Dallas, Fort Worth, Boston, Belo Horizonte, Khartoum, Riyadh, Singapore, Washington, Detroit, Barcelona,, Houston, Athens, Berlin, Sydney, Atlanta, Guadalajara, San Francisco, Oakland, Montreal, Monterey, Melbourne, Ankara, Recife, Phoenix/Mesa, Durban, Porto Alegre, Dalian, Jeddah, Seattle, Cape Town, San Diego, Fortaleza, Curitiba, Rome, Naples, Minneapolis, St. Paul, Tel Aviv, Birmingham, Frankfurt, Lisbon, Manchester, San Juan, Katowice, Tashkent, Fukuoka, Baku, Sumqayit, St. Louis, Baltimore, Sapporo, Tampa, St. Petersburg, Taichung, Warsaw, Denver, Cologne, Bonn, Hamburg, Dubai, Pretoria, Vancouver, Beirut, Budapest, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Campinas, Harare, Brasilia, Kuwait, Munich, Portland, Brussels, Vienna, San Jose, Damman , Copenhagen, Brisbane, Riverside, San Bernardino, Cincinnati and Accra
Jewellery     Article     Talk     Read     Edit     View history Tools From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For other uses, see Jewellery (disambiguation). Various examples of jewellery throughout history Jewellery (or jewelry in American English) consists of decorative items worn for personal adornment, such as brooches, rings, necklaces, earrings, pendants, bracelets, and cufflinks. Jewellery may be attached to the body or the clothes. From a western perspective, the term is restricted to durable ornaments, excluding flowers for example. For many centuries metal such as gold often combined with gemstones, has been the normal material for jewellery, but other materials such as glass, shells and other plant materials may be used. Jewellery is one of the oldest types of archaeological artefact – with 100,000-year-old beads made from Nassarius shells thought to be the oldest known jewellery.[1] The basic forms of jewellery vary between cultures but are often extremely long-lived; in European cultures the most common forms of jewellery listed above have persisted since ancient times, while other forms such as adornments for the nose or ankle, important in other cultures, are much less common. Jewellery may be made from a wide range of materials. Gemstones and similar materials such as amber and coral, precious metals, beads, and shells have been widely used, and enamel has often been important. In most cultures jewellery can be understood as a status symbol, for its material properties, its patterns, or for meaningful symbols. Jewellery has been made to adorn nearly every body part, from hairpins to toe rings, and even genital jewellery. In modern European culture the amount worn by adult males is relatively low compared with other cultures and other periods in European culture. The word jewellery itself is derived from the word jewel, which was anglicised from the Old French "jouel",[2] and beyond that, to the Latin word "jocale", meaning plaything. In British English, Indian English, New Zealand English, Hiberno-English, Australian English, and South African English it is spelled jewellery, while the spelling is jewelry in American English.[3] Both are used in Canadian English, though jewellery prevails by a two to one margin. In French and a few other European languages the equivalent term, joaillerie, may also cover decorated metalwork in precious metal such as objets d'art and church items, not just objects worn on the person. Form and function A gold, diamonds and sapphires red guilloché enamel "Boule de Genève", a type of pendant watch used as an accessory for women. An example of an object which is functional, artistic/decorative, marker of social status or a symbol of personal meaning. Humans have used jewellery for a number of different reasons:     functional, generally to fix clothing or hair in place.     as a marker of social status and personal status, as with a wedding ring     as a signifier of some form of affiliation, whether ethnic, religious or social     to provide talismanic protection (in the form of amulets)[4]     as an artistic display     as a carrier or symbol of personal meaning – such as love, mourning, a personal milestone or even luck     considered it as a good investment     superstition[5] Most[quantify] cultures at some point have had a practice of keeping large amounts of wealth stored in the form of jewellery. Numerous cultures store wedding dowries in the form of jewellery or make jewellery as a means to store or display coins. Alternatively, jewellery has been used as a currency or trade good.[6] an example being the use of slave beads.[7] Many items of jewellery, such as brooches and buckles, originated as purely functional items, but evolved into decorative items as their functional requirement diminished.[8] Jewellery can symbolise group membership (as in the case, of the Christian crucifix or the Jewish Star of David) or status (as in the case of chains of office, or the Western practice of married people wearing wedding rings). Wearing of amulets and devotional medals to provide protection or to ward off evil is common in some cultures. These may take the form of symbols (such as the ankh), stones, plants, animals, body parts (such as the Khamsa), or glyphs (such as stylised versions of the Throne Verse in Islamic art).[9] Materials and methods Hair ornament, an Art Nouveau masterpiece; by René Lalique; circa 1902; gold, emeralds and diamonds; Musée d'Orsay (Paris) In creating jewellery, gemstones, coins, or other precious items are often used, and they are typically set into precious metals. Platinum alloys range from 900 (90% pure) to 950 (95% pure). The silver used in jewellery is usually sterling silver, or 92.5% fine silver. In costume jewellery, stainless steel findings are sometimes used. Other commonly used materials include glass, such as fused-glass or enamel; wood, often carved or turned; shells and other natural animal substances such as bone and ivory; natural clay; polymer clay; Hemp and other twines have been used as well to create jewellery that has more of a natural feel. However, any inclusion of lead or lead solder will give a British Assay office (the body which gives U.K. jewellery its stamp of approval, the Hallmark) the right to destroy the piece, however it is very rare for the assay office to do so. Beads are frequently used in jewellery. These may be made of glass, gemstones, metal, wood, shells, clay and polymer clay. Beaded jewellery commonly encompasses necklaces, bracelets, earrings, belts and rings. Beads may be large or small; the smallest type of beads used are known as seed beads, these are the beads used for the "woven" style of beaded jewellery. Seed beads are also used in an embroidery technique where they are sewn onto fabric backings to create broad collar neck pieces and beaded bracelets. Bead embroidery, a popular type of handwork during the Victorian era, is enjoying a renaissance in modern jewellery making. Beading, or beadwork, is also very popular in many African and indigenous North American cultures. Silversmiths, goldsmiths, and lapidaries use methods including forging, casting, soldering or welding, cutting, carving and "cold-joining" (using adhesives, staples and rivets to assemble parts).[10] Diamonds Main article: Diamond Diamonds Diamonds were first mined in India.[11] Pliny may have mentioned them, although there is some debate as to the exact nature of the stone he referred to as Adamas.[12] In 2005, Australia, Botswana, Russia and Canada ranked among the primary sources of gemstone diamond production.[13] There are negative consequences of the diamond trade in certain areas. Diamonds mined during the recent civil wars in Angola, Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone, and other nations have been labelled as blood diamonds when they are mined in a war zone and sold to finance an insurgency.[citation needed] The British crown jewels contain the Cullinan Diamond, part of the largest gem-quality rough diamond ever found (1905), at 3,106.75 carats (621.35 g). A diamond solitaire engagement ring Now popular in engagement rings, this usage dates back to the marriage of Maximilian I to Mary of Burgundy in 1477.[14] A popular style is the diamond solitaire, which features a single large diamond mounted prominently.[15] Within solitaire, there are three categories in which a ring can be classified: prong, bezel and tension setting.[16] Other gemstones Main article: Gemstone     Jade     Jade     Jasper     Jasper     Ruby     Ruby     Sapphire     Sapphire     Turquoise     Turquoise Many precious and semiprecious stones are used for jewellery. Among them are: Amber     Amber, an ancient organic gemstone, is composed of tree resin that has hardened over time. The stone must be at least one million years old to be classified as amber, and some amber can be up to 120 million years old. Amethyst     Amethyst has historically been the most prized gemstone in the quartz family. It is treasured for its purple hue, which can range in tone from light to dark. Emerald     Emeralds are one of the three main precious gemstones (along with rubies and sapphires) and are known for their fine green to bluish green colour. They have been treasured throughout history, and some historians report that the Egyptians mined emerald as early as 3500 BC. Jade     Jade is most commonly associated with the colour green but can come in a number of other colours as well. Jade is closely linked to Asian culture, history, and tradition, and is sometimes referred to as the stone of heaven. Jasper     Jasper is a gemstone of the chalcedony family that comes in a variety of colours. Often, jasper will feature unique and interesting patterns within the coloured stone. Picture jasper is a type of jasper known for the colours (often beiges and browns) and swirls in the stone's pattern. Quartz     Quartz refers to a family of crystalline gemstones of various colours and sizes. Among the well-known types of quartz are rose quartz (which has a delicate pink colour), and smoky quartz (which comes in a variety of shades of translucent brown). A number of other gemstones, such as Amethyst and Citrine, are also part of the quartz family. Rutilated quartz is a popular type of quartz containing needle-like inclusions. Ruby     Rubies are known for their intense red colour and are among the most highly valued precious gemstones. Rubies have been treasured for millennia. In Sanskrit, the word for ruby is ratnaraj, meaning king of precious stones. Sapphire     The most popular form of sapphire is blue sapphire, which is known for its medium to deep blue colour and strong saturation. Fancy sapphires of various colours are also available. In the United States, blue sapphire tends to be the most popular and most affordable of the three major precious gemstones (emerald, ruby, and sapphire). Turquoise     Turquoise is found in only a few places on earth, and the world's largest turquoise-producing region is the southwest United States. Turquoise is prized for its attractive colour, most often an intense medium blue or a greenish blue, and its ancient heritage. Turquoise is used in a great variety of jewellery styles. It is perhaps most closely associated with southwest and Native American jewellery, but it is also used in many sleek, modern styles. Some turquoise contains a matrix of dark brown markings, which provides an interesting contrast to the gemstone's bright blue colour. Some gemstones (like pearls, coral, and amber) are classified as organic, meaning that they are produced by living organisms. Others are inorganic, meaning that they are generally composed of and arise from minerals. Some gems, for example, amethyst, have become less valued as methods of extracting and importing them have progressed. Some man-made gems can serve in place of natural gems, such as cubic zirconia, which can be used in place of diamond.[17] Metal finishes An example of gold plated jewellery. For platinum, gold, and silver jewellery, there are many techniques to create finishes. The most common are high-polish, satin/matte, brushed, and hammered. High-polished jewellery is the most common and gives the metal a highly reflective, shiny look. Satin, or matte finish reduces the shine and reflection of the jewellery, and this is commonly used to accentuate gemstones such as diamonds. Brushed finishes give the jewellery a textured look and are created by brushing a material (similar to sandpaper) against the metal, leaving "brush strokes". Hammered finishes are typically created by using a rounded steel hammer and hammering the jewellery to give it a wavy texture. Some jewellery is plated to give it a shiny, reflective look or to achieve a desired colour. Sterling silver jewellery may be plated with a thin layer of 0.999 fine silver (a process known as flashing) or may be plated with rhodium or gold. Base metal costume jewellery may also be plated with silver, gold, or rhodium for a more attractive finish. Impact on society Jewellery has been used to denote status. In ancient Rome, only certain ranks could wear rings and[18] later, sumptuary laws dictated who could wear what type of jewellery. This was also based on rank of the citizens of that time. Cultural dictates have also played a significant role. For example, the wearing of earrings by Western men was considered effeminate in the 19th century and early 20th century. More recently, the display of body jewellery, such as piercings, has become a mark of acceptance or seen as a badge of courage within some groups but is completely rejected in others. Likewise, hip hop culture has popularised the slang term bling-bling, which refers to ostentatious display of jewellery by men or women. Conversely, the jewellery industry in the early 20th century launched a campaign to popularise wedding rings for men, which caught on, as well as engagement rings for men, which did not, going so far as to create a false history and claim that the practice had medieval roots. By the mid-1940s, 85% of weddings in the U.S. featured a double-ring ceremony, up from 15% in the 1920s.[19] Some religions have specific rules or traditions surrounding jewellery (or even prohibiting it) and many religions have edicts against excessive display. Islam, for instance, considers the wearing of gold by men as Haraam.[20] The majority of Islamic jewellery was in the form of bridal dowries, and traditionally was not handed down from generation to generation; instead, on a woman's death it was sold at the souk and recycled or sold to passers-by. Islamic jewellery from before the 19th century is thus exceedingly rare.[21] Some Christian denominations forbid the use of jewellery by both men and women, including Amish-Mennonites and Holiness churches. The New Testament of the Bible gives injunctions against the wearing of gold, in the writings of the apostles Paul and Peter, and Revelations, describes "the great whore", or false religious system, as being "decked with gold and precious stones and pearls, having a golden cup in her hand." (Rev. 17:4) History The history of jewellery is long and goes back many years, with many different uses among different cultures. It has endured for thousands of years and has provided various insights into how ancient cultures worked. Prehistory The earliest known Jewellery was actually created not by humans (Homo sapiens) but by Neanderthal living in Europe. Specifically, perforated beads made from small sea shells have been found dating to 115,000 years ago in the Cueva de los Aviones, a cave along the southeast coast of Spain. Later in Kenya, at Enkapune Ya Muto, beads made from perforated ostrich egg shells have been dated to more than 40,000 years ago. In Russia, a stone bracelet and marble ring are attributed to a similar age.[22] Later, the European early modern humans had crude necklaces and bracelets of bone, teeth, berries, and stone hung on pieces of string or animal sinew, or pieces of carved bone used to secure clothing together. In some cases, jewellery had shell or mother-of-pearl pieces. A decorated engraved pendant (the Star Carr Pendant) dating to around 11,000 BC, and thought to be the oldest Mesolithic art in Britain, was found at the site of Star Carr in North Yorkshire in 2015.[23] In southern Russia, carved bracelets made of mammoth tusk have been found. The Venus of Hohle Fels features a perforation at the top, showing that it was intended to be worn as a pendant. Around seven-thousand years ago, the first sign of copper jewellery was seen.[8] In October 2012 the Museum of Ancient History in Lower Austria revealed that they had found a grave of a female jewellery worker – forcing archaeologists to take a fresh look at prehistoric gender roles after it appeared to be that of a female fine metal worker – a profession that was previously thought to have been carried out exclusively by men.[24]     String of beads; 3650–3100 BC; lapis lazuli (the blue beads) and travertine (the white beads) (Egyptian alabaster); length: 4.5 cm; by Naqada II or Naqada III cultures; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)     String of beads; 3650–3100 BC; lapis lazuli (the blue beads) and travertine (the white beads) (Egyptian alabaster); length: 4.5 cm; by Naqada II or Naqada III cultures; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)     String of beads; 3300–3100 BC; carnelian, garnet, quartz and glazed steatite; length: 20.5 cm; by Naqada III culture Metropolitan Museum of Art     String of beads; 3300–3100 BC; carnelian, garnet, quartz and glazed steatite; length: 20.5 cm; by Naqada III culture Metropolitan Museum of Art     Armlet with sun symbol; 16th–13th century BC (late Bronze Age); bronze; German National Museum (Nürnberg)     Armlet with sun symbol; 16th–13th century BC (late Bronze Age); bronze; German National Museum (Nürnberg)     Necklace; probably 2600–1300 BC; carnelian, bone and stone; from Saruq Al Hadid (the United Arab Emirates)     Necklace; probably 2600–1300 BC; carnelian, bone and stone; from Saruq Al Hadid (the United Arab Emirates) Africa Egypt Main article: Art of ancient Egypt § Jewelry The first signs of established jewellery making in Ancient Egypt was around 3,000–5,000 years ago.[25] The Egyptians preferred the luxury, rarity, and workability of gold over other metals. In Predynastic Egypt jewellery soon began to symbolise political and religious power in the community. Although it was worn by wealthy Egyptians in life, it was also worn by them in death, with jewellery commonly placed among grave goods. In conjunction with gold jewellery, Egyptians used coloured glass, along with semi-precious gems. The colour of the jewellery had significance. Green, for example, symbolised fertility. Lapis lazuli and silver had to be imported from beyond the country's borders. Egyptian designs were most common in Phoenician jewellery. Also, ancient Turkish designs found in Persian jewellery suggest that trade between the Middle East and Europe was not uncommon. Women wore elaborate gold and silver pieces that were used in ceremonies.[25]     Pectoral (chest jewellery) of Tutankhamun; 1336–1327 BC (Reign of Tutankhamun); gold, silver and meteoric glass; height: 14.9 cm (5.9 in); Egyptian Museum (Cairo)     Pectoral (chest jewellery) of Tutankhamun; 1336–1327 BC (Reign of Tutankhamun); gold, silver and meteoric glass; height: 14.9 cm (5.9 in); Egyptian Museum (Cairo)     Pendant; circa 1069 BC; gold and turquoise; overall: 5.1 x 2.3 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland)     Pendant; circa 1069 BC; gold and turquoise; overall: 5.1 x 2.3 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland)     Signet ring; 664–525 BC; gold; diameter: 3 × 3.4 cm; British Museum (London)     Signet ring; 664–525 BC; gold; diameter: 3 × 3.4 cm; British Museum (London)     Pectoral and necklace of Princess Sithathoriunet; 1887–1813 BC; gold, carnelian, lapis lazuli, turquoise, garnet & feldspar; height of the pectoral: 4.5 cm (1.8 in); Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)     Pectoral and necklace of Princess Sithathoriunet; 1887–1813 BC; gold, carnelian, lapis lazuli, turquoise, garnet & feldspar; height of the pectoral: 4.5 cm (1.8 in); Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) Khmissa amulet in silver Maghreb countries in North Africa Main article: Jewellery of the Berber cultures Jewellery of the Berber cultures is a style of traditional jewellery worn by women and girls in the rural areas of the Maghreb region in North Africa inhabited by indigenous Berber people (in Berber language: Amazigh, Imazighen, pl). Following long social and cultural traditions, the silversmiths of different ethnic Berber groups of Morocco, Algeria and neighbouring countries created intricate jewellery to adorn their women and that formed part of their ethnic identity. Traditional Berber jewellery was usually made of silver and includes elaborate brooches made of triangular plates and pins (fibula), originally used as clasps for garments, but also necklaces, bracelets, earrings and similar items. Another major type is the so-called khmissa (local pronunciation of the Arabic word "khamsa" for the number "five"), which is called afus in the Berber language (Tamazight). This form represents the five fingers of the hand and is traditionally believed both by Muslims as well as Jewish people to protect against the Evil Eye.[26] Europe and the Middle East The first gold jewellery from Bulgaria Main article: Varna Necropolis Oldest golden artifacts in the world from Varna necropolis – grave offerings on exposition in Varna Museum The oldest gold jewelry in the world is dating from 4,600 BC to 4,200 BC and was discovered in Europe, at the site of Varna Necropolis, near the Black Sea coast in Bulgaria.[27][28][29] Several prehistoric Bulgarian finds are considered no less old – the golden treasures of Hotnitsa, Durankulak, artifacts from the Kurgan settlement of Yunatsite near Pazardzhik, the golden treasure Sakar, as well as beads and gold jewellery found in the Kurgan settlement of Provadia – Solnitsata (“salt pit”). However, Varna gold is most often called the oldest since this treasure is the largest and most diverse.[30] Mesopotamia Headdress decorated with golden leaves; 2600–2400 BC; gold, lapis lazuli and carnelian; length: 38.5 cm; from the Royal Cemetery at Ur; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) By approximately 5,000 years ago, jewellery-making had become a significant craft in the cities of Mesopotamia. The most significant archaeological evidence comes from the Royal Cemetery of Ur, where hundreds of burials dating 2900–2300 BC were unearthed; tombs such as that of Puabi contained a multitude of artefacts in gold, silver, and semi-precious stones, such as lapis lazuli crowns embellished with gold figurines, close-fitting collar necklaces, and jewel-headed pins. In Assyria, men and women both wore extensive amounts of jewellery, including amulets, ankle bracelets, heavy multi-strand necklaces, and cylinder seals.[31] Jewellery in Mesopotamia tended to be manufactured from thin metal leaf and was set with large numbers of brightly coloured stones (chiefly agate, lapis, carnelian, and jasper). Favoured shapes included leaves, spirals, cones, and bunches of grapes. Jewellers created works both for human use and for adorning statues and idols. They employed a wide variety of sophisticated metalworking techniques, such as cloisonné, engraving, fine granulation, and filigree.[32] Extensive and meticulously maintained records pertaining to the trade and manufacture of jewellery have also been unearthed throughout Mesopotamian archaeological sites. One record in the Mari royal archives, for example, gives the composition of various items of jewellery:         1 necklace of flat speckled chalcedony beads including: 34 flat speckled chalcedony bead, [and] 35 gold fluted beads, in groups of five.         1 necklace of flat speckled chalcedony beads including: 39 flat speckled chalcedony beads, [with] 41 fluted beads in a group that make up the hanging device.         1 necklace with rounded lapis lazuli beads including: 28 rounded lapis lazuli beads, [and] 29 fluted beads for its clasp.[33]     Sumerian necklace beads; 2600–2500 BC; gold and lapis lazuli; length: 54 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art     Sumerian necklace beads; 2600–2500 BC; gold and lapis lazuli; length: 54 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art     Necklace; 2600–2500 BC; gold and lapis lazuli; length: 22.5 cm; Royal Cemetery at Ur (Iraq); Metropolitan Museum of Art     Necklace; 2600–2500 BC; gold and lapis lazuli; length: 22.5 cm; Royal Cemetery at Ur (Iraq); Metropolitan Museum of Art     Pair of earrings with cuneiform inscriptions, 2093–2046 BC; gold; Sulaymaniyah Museum (Sulaymaniyah, Iraq)     Pair of earrings with cuneiform inscriptions, 2093–2046 BC; gold; Sulaymaniyah Museum (Sulaymaniyah, Iraq)     Sumerian necklaces and headgear discovered in the royal (and individual) graves of the Royal Cemetery at Ur, showing the way they may have been worn, in British Museum (London)     Sumerian necklaces and headgear discovered in the royal (and individual) graves of the Royal Cemetery at Ur, showing the way they may have been worn, in British Museum (London) Greece Openwork hairnet; 300–200 BC; gold; diameter: 23 cm, diameter of the medallion: 11.4 cm; unknown provenance (said to be from Karpenissi (Greece)); National Archaeological Museum (Athens)[34] The Greeks started using gold and gems in jewellery in 1600 BC, although beads shaped as shells and animals were produced widely in earlier times. Around 1500 BC, the main techniques of working gold in Greece included casting, twisting bars, and making wire.[35] Many of these sophisticated techniques were popular in the Mycenaean period, but unfortunately this skill was lost at the end of the Bronze Age. The forms and shapes of jewellery in ancient Greece such as the armring (13th century BC), brooch (10th century BC) and pins (7th century BC), have varied widely since the Bronze Age as well. Other forms of jewellery include wreaths, earrings, necklace and bracelets. A good example of the high quality that gold working techniques could achieve in Greece is the 'Gold Olive Wreath' (4th century BC), which is modeled on the type of wreath given as a prize for winners in athletic competitions like the Olympic Games. Jewellery dating from 600 to 475 BC is not well represented in the archaeological record, but after the Persian wars the quantity of jewellery again became more plentiful.[36] One particularly popular type of design at this time was a bracelet decorated with snake and animal-heads Because these bracelets used considerably more metal, many examples were made from bronze. By 300 BC, the Greeks had mastered making coloured jewellery and using amethysts, pearl, and emeralds. Also, the first signs of cameos appeared, with the Greeks creating them from Indian Sardonyx, a striped brown pink and cream agate stone. Greek jewellery was often simpler than in other cultures, with simple designs and workmanship. However, as time progressed, the designs grew in complexity and different materials were soon used. Jewellery in Greece was hardly worn and was mostly used for public appearances or on special occasions. It was frequently given as a gift and was predominantly worn by women to show their wealth, social status, and beauty. The jewellery was often supposed to give the wearer protection from the "Evil Eye" or endowed the owner with supernatural powers, while others had a religious symbolism. Older pieces of jewellery that have been found were dedicated to the Gods. They worked two styles of pieces: cast pieces and pieces hammered out of sheet metal. Fewer pieces of cast jewellery have been recovered. It was made by casting the metal onto two stone or clay moulds. The two halves were then joined, and wax, followed by molten metal, was placed in the centre. This technique had been practised since the late Bronze Age. The more common form of jewellery was the hammered sheet type. Sheets of metal would be hammered to thickness and then soldered together. The inside of the two sheets would be filled with wax or another liquid to preserve the metal work. Different techniques, such as using a stamp or engraving, were then used to create motifs on the jewellery. Jewels may then be added to hollows or glass poured into special cavities on the surface. The Greeks took much of their designs from outer origins, such as Asia, when Alexander the Great conquered part of it. In earlier designs, other European influences can also be detected. When Roman rule came to Greece, no change in jewellery designs was detected. However, by 27 BC, Greek designs were heavily influenced by the Roman culture. That is not to say that indigenous design did not thrive. Numerous polychrome butterfly pendants on silver foxtail chains, dating from the 1st century, have been found near Olbia, with only one example ever found anywhere else.[37]     The Bee Pendant, an iconic Minoan jewel; 1700–1600 BC; gold; width: 4.6 cm; from Chrysolakkos (gold pit) complex at Malia; Archaeological Museum of Heraklion (Heraklion, Greece)[38][39]     The Bee Pendant, an iconic Minoan jewel; 1700–1600 BC; gold; width: 4.6 cm; from Chrysolakkos (gold pit) complex at Malia; Archaeological Museum of Heraklion (Heraklion, Greece)[38][39]     Mycenaean necklace; 1400–1050 BC; gilded terracotta; diameter of the rosettes: 2.7 cm, with variations of circa 0.1 cm, length of the pendant 3.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)     Mycenaean necklace; 1400–1050 BC; gilded terracotta; diameter of the rosettes: 2.7 cm, with variations of circa 0.1 cm, length of the pendant 3.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)     The Ganymede Jewellery; circa 300 BC; gold; various dimensions; provenance unknown (said to have been found near Thessaloniki (Greece)); Metropolitan Museum of Art     The Ganymede Jewellery; circa 300 BC; gold; various dimensions; provenance unknown (said to have been found near Thessaloniki (Greece)); Metropolitan Museum of Art     Necklace; circa 200 BC; gold, moonstone, garnet, emerald, cornelian, baroque pearl and banded agate; overall: 39.4 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland)     Necklace; circa 200 BC; gold, moonstone, garnet, emerald, cornelian, baroque pearl and banded agate; overall: 39.4 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland) Etruscan Main article: Etruscan jewelry Gorgons, pomegranates, acorns, lotus flowers and palms were a clear indicator of Greek influence in Etruscan jewellery. The modelling of heads, which was a typical practice from the Greek severe period, was a technique that spread throughout the Etruscan territory. An even clearer evidence of new influences is the shape introduced in the Orientalizing era: The Bullae. A pear shaped vessel used to hold perfume. Its surface was usually decorated with repoussé and engraved symbolic figures. Much of the jewellery found was not worn by Etruscans, but were made to accompany them in the after world. Most, if not all, techniques of Etruscan goldsmiths were not invented by them as they are dated to the third millennium BC.     The Vulci set of jewelry; early 5th century; gold, glass, rock crystal, agate and carnelian; various dimensions; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)     The Vulci set of jewelry; early 5th century; gold, glass, rock crystal, agate and carnelian; various dimensions; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)     Earring in the form of a dolphin; 5th century BC; gold; 2.1 × 1.4 × 4.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art     Earring in the form of a dolphin; 5th century BC; gold; 2.1 × 1.4 × 4.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art     Bulla with Daedalus and Icarus; 5th century BC; gold; 1.6 × 1 × 1 cm; Walters Art Museum (Baltimore)     Bulla with Daedalus and Icarus; 5th century BC; gold; 1.6 × 1 × 1 cm; Walters Art Museum (Baltimore)     Earring; gold and silver; 1.5 × 0.4 × 1.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art     Earring; gold and silver; 1.5 × 0.4 × 1.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art Rome The Great Cameo of France; second quarter of the 1st century AD; five-layered sardonyx; 31 x 26.5 cm; Cabinet des médailles (Paris) Although jewellery work was abundantly diverse in earlier times, especially among the barbarian tribes such as the Celts, when the Romans conquered most of Europe, jewellery was changed as smaller factions developed the Roman designs. The most common artefact of early Rome was the brooch, which was used to secure clothing together. The Romans used a diverse range of materials for their jewellery from their extensive resources across the continent. Although they used gold, they sometimes used bronze or bone, and in earlier times, glass beads & pearl. As early as 2,000 years ago, they imported Sri Lankan sapphires and Indian diamonds and used emeralds and amber in their jewellery. In Roman-ruled England, fossilised wood called jet from Northern England was often carved into pieces of jewellery. The early Italians worked in crude gold and created clasps, necklaces, earrings, and bracelets. They also produced larger pendants that could be filled with perfume. Like the Greeks, often the purpose of Roman jewellery was to ward off the "Evil Eye" given by other people. Although women wore a vast array of jewellery, men often only wore a finger ring. Although they were expected to wear at least one ring, some Roman men wore a ring on every finger, while others wore none. Roman men and women wore rings with an engraved gem on it that was used with wax to seal documents, a practice that continued into medieval times when kings and noblemen used the same method. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the jewellery designs were absorbed by neighbouring countries and tribes.[25]     Cameo portrait of the Emperor Augustus; 41–54 AD; sardonyx; 3.7 × 2.9 × 0.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)     Cameo portrait of the Emperor Augustus; 41–54 AD; sardonyx; 3.7 × 2.9 × 0.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)     Bracelet; 1st–2nd century AD; gold-mounted crystal and sardonyx; length: 19.69 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art (Los Angeles)     Bracelet; 1st–2nd century AD; gold-mounted crystal and sardonyx; length: 19.69 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art (Los Angeles)     Necklace with a medallion depicting a goddess; 30–300 AD; green glass (the green beads) and gold; length: 43.82 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art     Necklace with a medallion depicting a goddess; 30–300 AD; green glass (the green beads) and gold; length: 43.82 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art     Openwork hairnet with the head of Medusa; 200–300 AD; gold; Archaeological Museum of Agrigento (Agrigento, Italy)     Openwork hairnet with the head of Medusa; 200–300 AD; gold; Archaeological Museum of Agrigento (Agrigento, Italy) Middle Ages Byzantine collier; late 6th–7th century; gold, emeralds, sapphires, amethysts and pearls; diameter: 23 cm; from a Constantinopolitan workshop; Antikensammlung Berlin (Berlin, Germany) Post-Roman Europe continued to develop jewellery making skills. The Celts and Merovingians in particular are noted for their jewellery, which in terms of quality matched or exceeded that of the Byzantine Empire. Clothing fasteners, amulets, and, to a lesser extent, signet rings, are the most common artefacts known to us. A particularly striking Celtic example is the Tara Brooch.[40] The Torc was common throughout Europe as a symbol of status and power. By the 8th century, jewelled weaponry was common for men, while other jewellery (with the exception of signet rings) seemed to become the domain of women. Grave goods found in a 6th–7th century burial near Chalon-sur-Saône are illustrative. A young girl was buried with: 2 silver fibulae, a necklace (with coins), bracelet, gold earrings, a pair of hair-pins, comb, and buckle.[41] The Celts specialised in continuous patterns and designs, while Merovingian designs are best known for stylised animal figures.[42] They were not the only groups known for high quality work. Note the Visigoth work shown here, and the numerous decorative objects found at the Anglo-Saxon Ship burial at Sutton Hoo Suffolk, England are a particularly well-known example.[25] On the continent, cloisonné and garnet were perhaps the quintessential method and gemstone of the period. The Eastern successor of the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire, continued many of the methods of the Romans, though religious themes came to predominate. Unlike the Romans, the Franks, and the Celts, however, Byzantium used light-weight gold leaf rather than solid gold, and more emphasis was placed on stones and gems. As in the West, Byzantine jewellery was worn by wealthier females, with male jewellery apparently restricted to signet rings. Woman's jewellery had some peculiarities like kolts that decorated headband. Like other contemporary cultures, jewellery was commonly buried with its owner.[43]     The Eagle-shaped fibulae of Alovera; 5th century; gold, bronze and glass (imitation of garnet); height: 11.8 cm, width: 5.9 cm; from Guadalajara (Spain); National Archaeological Museum (Madrid, Spain)     The Eagle-shaped fibulae of Alovera; 5th century; gold, bronze and glass (imitation of garnet); height: 11.8 cm, width: 5.9 cm; from Guadalajara (Spain); National Archaeological Museum (Madrid, Spain)     Shoulder-clasps from Sutton Hoo; early 7th century; gold, glass & garnet; length: 12.7 cm; British Museum (London)     Shoulder-clasps from Sutton Hoo; early 7th century; gold, glass & garnet; length: 12.7 cm; British Museum (London)     Pair of Byzantine earrings; 7th century; gold, pearls, glass and emeralds; 10.2 x 4.5 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland)     Pair of Byzantine earrings; 7th century; gold, pearls, glass and emeralds; 10.2 x 4.5 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland)     Front of a temple pendant with two birds flanking a tree of life; 11th–12th century; cloisonné enamel & gold; overall: 5.4 x 4.8 x 1.5 cm; made in Kyiv (Ukraine); Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)     Front of a temple pendant with two birds flanking a tree of life; 11th–12th century; cloisonné enamel & gold; overall: 5.4 x 4.8 x 1.5 cm; made in Kyiv (Ukraine); Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) Renaissance Cameo; 16th century; sardonyx; Cabinet des Médailles (Paris) The Renaissance and exploration both had significant impacts on the development of jewellery in Europe. By the 17th century, increasing exploration and trade led to increased availability of a wide variety of gemstones as well as exposure to the art of other cultures. Whereas prior to this the working of gold and precious metal had been at the forefront of jewellery, this period saw increasing dominance of gemstones and their settings. An example of this is the Cheapside Hoard, the stock of a jeweller hidden in London during the Commonwealth period and not found again until 1912. It contained Colombian emerald, topaz, amazonite from Brazil, spinel, iolite, and chrysoberyl from Sri Lanka, ruby from India, Afghan lapis lazuli, Persian turquoise, Red Sea peridot, as well as Bohemian and Hungarian opal, garnet, and amethyst. Large stones were frequently set in box-bezels on enamelled rings.[44] Notable among merchants of the period was Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, who brought the precursor stone of the Hope Diamond to France in the 1660s. When Napoleon Bonaparte was crowned as Emperor of the French in 1804, he revived the style and grandeur of jewellery and fashion in France. Under Napoleon's rule, jewellers introduced parures, suites of matching jewellery, such as a diamond tiara, diamond earrings, diamond rings, a diamond brooch, and a diamond necklace. Both of Napoleon's wives had beautiful sets such as these and wore them regularly. Another fashion trend resurrected by Napoleon was the cameo. Soon after his cameo decorated crown was seen, cameos were highly sought. The period also saw the early stages of costume jewellery, with fish scale covered glass beads in place of pearls or conch shell cameos instead of stone cameos. New terms were coined to differentiate the arts: jewellers who worked in cheaper materials were called bijoutiers, while jewellers who worked with expensive materials were called joailliers, a practice which continues to this day. Romanticism Russian earring; 19th century; silver, enamel and red glass beads; overall: 6.4 x 2.6 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland) Starting in the late 18th century, Romanticism had a profound impact on the development of western jewellery. Perhaps the most significant influences were the public's fascination with the treasures being discovered through the birth of modern archaeology and a fascination with Medieval and Renaissance art. Changing social conditions and the onset of the Industrial Revolution also led to growth of a middle class that wanted and could afford jewellery. As a result, the use of industrial processes, cheaper alloys, and stone substitutes led to the development of paste or costume jewellery. Distinguished goldsmiths continued to flourish, however, as wealthier patrons sought to ensure that what they wore still stood apart from the jewellery of the masses, not only through use of precious metals and stones but also though superior artistic and technical work. One such artist was the French goldsmith François-Désiré Froment-Meurice. A category unique to this period and quite appropriate to the philosophy of romanticism was mourning jewellery. It originated in England, where Queen Victoria was often seen wearing jet jewellery after the death of Prince Albert, and it allowed the wearer to continue wearing jewellery while expressing a state of mourning at the death of a loved one.[45] In the United States, this period saw the founding in 1837 of Tiffany & Co. by Charles Lewis Tiffany. Tiffany's put the United States on the world map in terms of jewellery and gained fame creating dazzling commissions for people such as the wife of Abraham Lincoln. Later, it would gain popular notoriety as the setting of the film Breakfast at Tiffany's. In France, Pierre Cartier founded Cartier SA in 1847, while 1884 saw the founding of Bulgari in Italy. The modern production studio had been born and was a step away from the former dominance of individual craftsmen and patronage. This period also saw the first major collaboration between East and West. Collaboration in Pforzheim between German and Japanese artists led to Shakudō plaques set into Filigree frames being created by the Stoeffler firm in 1885).[46] Perhaps the grand finalé – and an appropriate transition to the following period – were the masterful creations of the Russian artist Peter Carl Fabergé, working for the Imperial Russian court, whose Fabergé eggs and jewellery pieces are still considered as the epitome of the goldsmith's art. 18th century/Romanticism/Renaissance Many whimsical fashions were introduced in the extravagant eighteenth century. Cameos that were used in connection with jewellery were the attractive trinkets along with many of the small objects such as brooches, ear-rings and scarf-pins. Some of the necklets were made of several pieces joined with the gold chains were in and bracelets were also made sometimes to match the necklet and the brooch. At the end of the Century the jewellery with cut steel intermixed with large crystals was introduced by an Englishman, Matthew Boulton of Birmingham.[47] Art Nouveau Breastplate with a peacocks; René Lalique; circa 1898–1900; gold, enamels, opals and diamonds; Calouste Gulbenkian Museum (Lisboa, Portugal) In the 1890s, jewellers began to explore the potential of the growing Art Nouveau style and the closely related German Jugendstil, British (and to some extent American) Arts and Crafts Movement, Catalan Modernisme, Austro-Hungarian Sezession, Italian "Liberty", etc. Art Nouveau jewellery encompassed many distinct features including a focus on the female form and an emphasis on colour, most commonly rendered through the use of enamelling techniques including basse-taille, champleve, cloisonné, and plique-à-jour. Motifs included orchids, irises, pansies, vines, swans, peacocks, snakes, dragonflies, mythological creatures, and the female silhouette. René Lalique, working for the Paris shop of Samuel Bing, was recognised by contemporaries as a leading figure in this trend. The Darmstadt Artists' Colony and Wiener Werkstätte provided perhaps the most significant input to the trend, while in Denmark Georg Jensen, though best known for his Silverware, also contributed significant pieces. In England, Liberty & Co., (notably through the Cymric designs of Archibald Knox) and the British arts & crafts movement of Charles Robert Ashbee contributed slightly more linear but still characteristic designs. The new style moved the focus of the jeweller's art from the setting of stones to the artistic design of the piece itself. Lalique's dragonfly design is one of the best examples of this. Enamels played a large role in technique, while sinuous organic lines are the most recognisable design feature. The end of World War I once again changed public attitudes, and a more sober style developed.[48]     The Dragonfly brooch; by René Lalique; circa 1897–1898; gold, vitreous enamel, chrysoprase, chalcedony, moonstone and diamond; height: 23 cm, width: 26.5 cm; Calouste Gulbenkian Museum (Lisboa, Portugal)     The Dragonfly brooch; by René Lalique; circa 1897–1898; gold, vitreous enamel, chrysoprase, chalcedony, moonstone and diamond; height: 23 cm, width: 26.5 cm; Calouste Gulbenkian Museum (Lisboa, Portugal)     Necklace; by René Lalique; 1897–1899; gold, enamel, opals and amethysts; overall diameter: 24.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)     Necklace; by René Lalique; 1897–1899; gold, enamel, opals and amethysts; overall diameter: 24.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)     The Snakes brooch; by René Lalique; gold and enamel; Calouste Gulbenkian Museum     The Snakes brooch; by René Lalique; gold and enamel; Calouste Gulbenkian Museum     Hair ornament, an Art Nouveau masterpiece; by René Lalique; circa 1902; gold, emeralds and diamonds; Musée d'Orsay (Paris)     Hair ornament, an Art Nouveau masterpiece; by René Lalique; circa 1902; gold, emeralds and diamonds; Musée d'Orsay (Paris) Art Deco Growing political tensions, the after-effects of the war, and a reaction against the perceived decadence of the turn of the 20th century led to simpler forms, combined with more effective manufacturing for mass production of high-quality jewellery. Covering the period of the 1920s and 1930s, the style has become popularly known as Art Deco. Walter Gropius and the German Bauhaus movement, with their philosophy of "no barriers between artists and craftsmen" led to some interesting and stylistically simplified forms. Modern materials were also introduced: plastics and aluminium were first used in jewellery, and of note are the chromed pendants of Russian-born Bauhaus master Naum Slutzky. Technical mastery became as valued as the material itself. In the West, this period saw the reinvention of granulation by the German Elizabeth Treskow, although development of the re-invention has continued into the 1990s. It is based on the basic shapes. Asia In Asia, the Indian subcontinent has the longest continuous legacy of jewellery making anywhere, Asia was the first place where these jewellery were made in large numbers for the royals[49] with a history of over 5,000 years.[50] One of the first to start jewellery making were the peoples of the Indus Valley civilization, in what is now predominately modern-day Pakistan and part of northern and western India. Early jewellery making in China started around the same period, but it became widespread with the spread of Buddhism around 2,000 years ago. China The Chinese used silver in their jewellery more than gold. Blue kingfisher feathers were tied onto early Chinese jewellery and later, blue gems and glass were incorporated into designs. However, jade was preferred over any other stone. The Chinese revered jade because of the human-like qualities they assigned to it, such as its hardness, durability, and beauty.[8] The first jade pieces were very simple, but as time progressed, more complex designs evolved. Jade rings from between the 4th and 7th centuries BC show evidence of having been worked with a compound milling machine, hundreds of years before the first mention of such equipment in the west.[51] In China, the most uncommon piece of jewellery is the earring, which was worn neither by men nor women.[52] In modern times, earrings are still considered culturally taboo for men in China—in fact, in 2019, the Chinese video streaming service iQiyi began blurring the ears of male actors wearing earrings. Amulets were common, often with a Chinese symbol or dragon. Dragons, Chinese symbols, and phoenixes were frequently depicted on jewellery designs. The Chinese often placed their jewellery in their graves. Most Chinese graves found by archaeologists contain decorative jewellery.[53]     Fluted ring with a dragon head (huan); circa 475 BC; jade (nephrite); overall: 9.1 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland)     Fluted ring with a dragon head (huan); circa 475 BC; jade (nephrite); overall: 9.1 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland)     Ornament with flowers and grapes design; 1115–1234; jade; Shanghai Museum (China)     Ornament with flowers and grapes design; 1115–1234; jade; Shanghai Museum (China)     Xin 心 shaped jewelry; 1368–1644; gold, ruby, pearl and other gemstones; about the size of an adult human's palm; Dingling (Beijing, China)     Xin 心 shaped jewelry; 1368–1644; gold, ruby, pearl and other gemstones; about the size of an adult human's palm; Dingling (Beijing, China)     Hat ornament; 18th–19th century; gold, gilded metal, kingfisher feathers, glass and semiprecious stones; various dimensions; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)     Hat ornament; 18th–19th century; gold, gilded metal, kingfisher feathers, glass and semiprecious stones; various dimensions; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) Indian subcontinent Necklace with Shiva's family; late 19th century; gold inlaid with rubies, a diamond Rudraksha beads (elaeo carpus seeds) and silver back plate on clasp; overall: 38.1 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art (Los Angeles, US) The Indian subcontinent has a long jewellery history, which has gone through various changes via cultural influence and politics for more than 5,000–8,000 years. Because India had an abundant supply of precious metals and gems, it prospered financially through export and exchange with other countries. While European traditions were heavily influenced by waxing and waning empires, India enjoyed a continuous development of art forms for some 5,000 years.[50] One of the first to start jewellery making were the peoples of the Indus Valley civilization. By 1500 BC, the peoples of the Indus Valley were creating gold earrings and necklaces, bead necklaces, and metallic bangles. Before 2100 BC, prior to the period when metals were widely used, the largest jewellery trade in the Indus Valley region was the bead trade. Beads in the Indus Valley were made using simple techniques. First, a bead maker would need a rough stone, which would be bought from an eastern stone trader. The stone would then be placed into a hot oven where it would be heated until it turned deep red, a colour highly prized by people of the Indus Valley. The red stone would then be chipped to the right size and a hole bored through it with primitive drills. The beads were then polished. Some beads were also painted with designs. This art form was often passed down through the family. Children of bead makers often learned how to work beads from a young age. Each stone had its own characteristics related to Hinduism. Jewellery in the Indus Valley Civilization was worn predominantly by females, who wore numerous clay or shell bracelets on their wrists. They were often shaped like doughnuts and painted black. Over time, clay bangles were discarded for more durable ones. In present-day India, bangles are made out of metal or glass.[54] Other pieces that women frequently wore were thin bands of gold that would be worn on the forehead, earrings, primitive brooches, chokers, and gold rings. Although women wore jewellery the most, some men in the Indus Valley wore beads. Small beads were often crafted to be placed in men and women's hair. The beads were about one millimetre long. A female skeleton (presently on display at the National Museum, New Delhi, India) wears a carlinean bangle (bracelet) on her left hand. Kada is a special kind of bracelet and is widely popular in Indian culture. They symbolize animals such as peacock, elephant, etc.[55] According to Hindu belief, gold and silver are considered as sacred metals. Gold is symbolic of the warm sun, while silver suggests the cool moon. Both are the quintessential metals of Indian jewellery. Pure gold does not oxidise or corrode with time, which is why Hindu tradition associates gold with immortality. Gold imagery occurs frequently in ancient Indian literature. In the Vedic Hindu belief of cosmological creation, the source of physical and spiritual human life originated in and evolved from a golden womb (hiranyagarbha) or egg (hiranyanda), a metaphor of the sun, whose light rises from the primordial waters.[56] Jewellery had great status with India's royalty; it was so powerful that they established laws, limiting wearing of jewellery to royalty. Only royalty and a few others to whom they granted permission could wear gold ornaments on their feet. This would normally be considered breaking the appreciation of the sacred metals. Even though the majority of the Indian population wore jewellery, Maharajas and people related to royalty had a deeper connection with jewellery. The Maharaja's role was so important that the Hindu philosophers identified him as central to the smooth working of the world. He was considered as a divine being, a deity in human form, whose duty was to uphold and protect dharma, the moral order of the universe.[57] The largest ever single order to Cartier was made in 1925 by the Indian royalty, the Maharaja of Patiala, for the Patiala Necklace and other jewelry worth ₹1,000 million (equivalent to ₹210 billion, US$2.7 billion or €2.6 billion in 2023).[58] Navaratna (nine gems) is a powerful jewel frequently worn by a Maharaja (Emperor). It is an amulet, which comprises diamond, pearl, ruby, sapphire, emerald, topaz, cat's eye, coral, and hyacinth (red zircon). Each of these stones is associated with a celestial deity, represented the totality of the Hindu universe when all nine gems are together. The diamond is the most powerful gem among the nine stones. There were various cuts for the gemstone. Indian Kings bought gemstones privately from the sellers. Maharaja and other royal family members value gem as Hindu God. They exchanged gems with people to whom they were very close, especially the royal family members and other intimate allies. India was the first country to mine diamonds, with some mines dating back to 296 BC. India traded the diamonds, realising their valuable qualities. Historically, diamonds have been given to retain or regain a lover's or ruler's lost favour, as symbols of tribute, or as an expression of fidelity in exchange for concessions and protection. Mughal emperors and Kings used the diamonds as a means of assuring their immortality by having their names and worldly titles inscribed upon them. Moreover, it has played and continues to play a pivotal role in Indian social, political, economic, and religious event, as it often has done elsewhere. In Indian history, diamonds have been used to acquire military equipment, finance wars, foment revolutions, and tempt defections. They have contributed to the abdication or the decapitation of potentates. They have been used to murder a representative of the dominating power by lacing his food with crushed diamond. Indian diamonds have been used as security to finance large loans needed to buttress politically or economically tottering regimes. Victorious military heroes have been honoured by rewards of diamonds and also have been used as ransom payment for release from imprisonment or abduction.[59] Today, many jewellery designs and traditions are used, and jewellery is commonplace in Indian ceremonies and weddings.[53] For many Indians, especially those who follow the Hindu or Jain faiths, bridal jewellery is known as streedhan and functions as personal wealth for the bride only, as a sort of financial security. For this reason, this jewellery, especially in the sacred metals of gold and silver, has large cultural significance for Indian brides. Jewellery is worn on the arms and hands, ears, neck, hair, head, feet, toes and waist to bless the bride with prosperity.[60]     Pendant probably with Siddha; 8th–9th century; copper alloy; 8.89 x 7.93 x .31 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art (Los Angeles)     Pendant probably with Siddha; 8th–9th century; copper alloy; 8.89 x 7.93 x .31 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art (Los Angeles)     Earring with Vishnu riding Garuda; circa 1600; gold set with jewels and semi-precious stones; overall: 2.6 cm; from Nepal; Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland)     Earring with Vishnu riding Garuda; circa 1600; gold set with jewels and semi-precious stones; overall: 2.6 cm; from Nepal; Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland)     Earring with four-armed Vishnu riding Garuda with Nagas (serpent divinities); circa 1600; repousse gold with pearls; overall: 3.6 cm; from Nepal; Cleveland Museum of Art     Earring with four-armed Vishnu riding Garuda with Nagas (serpent divinities); circa 1600; repousse gold with pearls; overall: 3.6 cm; from Nepal; Cleveland Museum of Art     Comb with Vishnu adored by serpents; 1750–1800; ivory with traces of paint; 6.99 x 7.94; from Nepal; Los Angeles County Museum of Art     Comb with Vishnu adored by serpents; 1750–1800; ivory with traces of paint; 6.99 x 7.94; from Nepal; Los Angeles County Museum of Art North and South America Moche ear ornaments depicting winged runners; 3rd–7th century; gold, turquoise, sodalite and shell; diameter: 8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) Main article: Native American jewelry Jewellery making started in the Americas with the arrival of Paleo-Indians more than 15,000 years ago. This jewellery would have been made from stone, shell, bone and other perishable materials. The American continent is home to 2 cradles of civilization: in the Andes and Mesoamerica. Cultures in these regions developed more complex methods of jewellery creation. The Andes is the origin of hot working metallurgy in the Americas and consequently the region has the longest history of work in materials such as silver, platinum and gold. Metallurgy began in Mesoamerica during the Termainal Classic era, likely arriving from direct maritime trade with the Andean cultures. As a result, western Mesoamerican cultures, such as the Tarascans and Mixtecs, had more complex use of the technology. With the Moche culture, goldwork flourished. The pieces are no longer simple metalwork, but are now masterful examples of jewellery making. Pieces are sophisticated in their design, and feature inlays of turquoise, mother of pearl, spondylus shell, and amethyst. The nose and ear ornaments, chest plates, small containers and whistles are considered masterpieces of ancient Peruvian culture.[61] A notable example of Andean metallurgy is the Northern Andean cultures' work with platinum, which has a much higher melting point than other precious metals. There are only a few known examples of cold worked platinum in the Old World and no known intentionally hot worked examples (platinum was not identified as a separate element and small inclusions appeared in some goldwork). In the New World however, certain Andean cultures recognized platinum as a separate metal and were able to incorporate it into jewellery, such as through sintering it with gold.[62] Jadeite funerary jewellery from Tomb 1 of Structure VII of Calakmul, thought to belong to Yuknoom Tookʼ Kʼawiil. Late Classic (660 to 750 AD). Among the Late Post-Classic Aztecs, only nobility wore gold jewellery, as it showed their rank, power, and wealth. A large portion of "Aztec gold" jewellery was created by Mixtec artisans. The Mixtecs were particularly known for their goldwork and gold jewellery was part of the tribute paid by Mixtec polities to the Aztecs. In general, the more jewellery an Aztec noble wore, the higher his status or prestige. The Emperor and his High Priests, for example, would be nearly completely covered in jewellery when making public appearances. Although gold was the most common and a popular material used in Aztec jewellery, jade, turquoise, and certain feathers were considered more valuable.[63] In addition to adornment and status, the Aztecs also used jewellery in sacrifices to appease the gods.[25][45] Another ancient American civilization with expertise in jewellery making were the Maya. During the Pre-Classic and Classic era of Maya civilization, the Maya were making jewellery from local materials such as jade, pearls, and sea shell while also incorporating imported materials such as obsidian and turquoise. In the Terminal Classic and Post-Classic, importation of gold, silver, bronze, and copper lead to the use of these materials in jewellery. Merchants and nobility were the only few that wore expensive jewellery in the Maya region, much the same as with the Aztecs.[53] Jade in particular had an important role across Mesoamerica. In Northern America, Native Americans used shells, wood, turquoise, and soapstone The turquoise was used in necklaces and to be placed in earrings. The turquoise incorporated into Mesoamerican jewellery was primarily obtained through trade with Oasisamerica. Native Americans with access to oyster shells, often located in only one location in America, traded the shells with other tribes, showing the great importance of the body adornment trade in Northern America.[64] Jewellery played a major role in the fate of the Americas when the Spanish colonizers were spurred to search for gold on the American mainland after coming into contact with Caribbean natives that had gold jewellery obtained through trade with the mainland. Continued contact with Native Americans wearing gold jewellery eventually lead to Spanish expeditions of the mythological El Dorado.     Pendant made from a spondylus shell, Western Mexico shaft tomb tradition, 200 BC to 200 AD, now at the Art Institute of Chicago, United States.     Pendant made from a spondylus shell, Western Mexico shaft tomb tradition, 200 BC to 200 AD, now at the Art Institute of Chicago, United States.     Muisca gold jewellery, including a headband, nose ornament and pectoral, on display at the Gold Museum in Bogota, Colombia.     Muisca gold jewellery, including a headband, nose ornament and pectoral, on display at the Gold Museum in Bogota, Colombia.     Moche nose ornament made from silver and gold-silver alloy, inlaid with malachite, now at the Cleveland Museum of Art, United States.     Moche nose ornament made from silver and gold-silver alloy, inlaid with malachite, now at the Cleveland Museum of Art, United States.     Mixtec-Puebla style labret made from obsidian in the shape of an eagle, now at the Walters Art Museum in Baltimore, United States.     Mixtec-Puebla style labret made from obsidian in the shape of an eagle, now at the Walters Art Museum in Baltimore, United States. Native American Main article: Native American jewelry Bai-De-Schluch-A-Ichin or Be-Ich-Schluck-Ich-In-Et-Tzuzzigi (Slender Silversmith) "Metal Beater," Navajo silversmith, photo by George Ben Wittick, 1883 Native American jewellery is the personal adornment, often in the forms of necklaces, earrings, bracelets, rings, pins, brooches, labrets, and more, made by the Indigenous peoples of the United States. Native American jewellery reflects the cultural diversity and history of its makers. Native American tribes continue to develop distinct aesthetics rooted in their personal artistic visions and cultural traditions. Artists create jewellery for adornment, ceremonies, and trade. Lois Sherr Dubin writes, "[i]n the absence of written languages, adornment became an important element of Indian [Native American] communication, conveying many levels of information." Later, jewellery and personal adornment "...signaled resistance to assimilation. It remains a major statement of tribal and individual identity."[65] Within the Haida Nation of the Pacific Northwest, copper was used as a form of jewellery for creating bracelets.[66] Metalsmiths, beaders, carvers, and lapidaries combine a variety of metals, hardwoods, precious and semi-precious gemstones, beadwork, quillwork, teeth, bones, hide, vegetal fibres, and other materials to create jewellery. Contemporary Native American jewellery ranges from hand-quarried and processed stones and shells to computer-fabricated steel and titanium jewellery. Pacific Main article: Jewellery in the Pacific Jewellery making in the Pacific started later than in other areas because of recent human settlement. Early Pacific jewellery was made of bone, wood, and other natural materials, and thus has not survived. Most Pacific jewellery is worn above the waist, with headdresses, necklaces, hair pins, and arm and waist belts being the most common pieces. Jewellery in the Pacific, with the exception of Australia, is worn to be a symbol of either fertility or power. Elaborate headdresses are worn by many Pacific cultures and some, such as the inhabitants of Papua New Guinea, wear certain headdresses once they have killed an enemy. Tribesman may wear boar bones through their noses. Island jewellery is still very much primal because of the lack of communication with outside cultures. Some areas of Borneo and Papua New Guinea are yet to be explored by Western nations. However, the island nations that were flooded with Western missionaries have had drastic changes made to their jewellery designs. Missionaries saw any type of tribal jewellery as a sign of the wearer's devotion to paganism. Thus many tribal designs were lost forever in the mass conversion to Christianity.[67] Australia is now the number one supplier of opals in the world. Opals had already been mined in Europe and South America for many years prior, but in the late 19th century, the Australian opal market became predominant. Australian opals are only mined in a few select places around the country, making it one of the most profitable stones in the Pacific.[68] The New Zealand Māori traditionally had a strong culture of personal adornment,[69] most famously the hei-tiki. Hei-tikis are traditionally carved by hand from bone, nephrite, or bowenite. Nowadays a wide range of such traditionally inspired items such as bone carved pendants based on traditional fishhooks hei matau and other greenstone jewellery are popular with young New Zealanders of all backgrounds – for whom they relate to a generalized sense of New Zealand identity. These trends have contributed towards a worldwide interest in traditional Māori culture and arts. Other than jewellery created through Māori influence, modern jewellery in New Zealand is multicultural and varied.[67]     Māori hei-tiki; 1500–1800; jade (nephrite), abalone shell and pigments; from the New Zealand; Musée du quai Branly – Jacques Chirac (Paris)     Māori hei-tiki; 1500–1800; jade (nephrite), abalone shell and pigments; from the New Zealand; Musée du quai Branly – Jacques Chirac (Paris)     Hei-tiki; 18th century; nephrite and haliotis shell; 10.9 cm; from the New Zealand; Los Angeles County Museum of Art (Los Angeles)     Hei-tiki; 18th century; nephrite and haliotis shell; 10.9 cm; from the New Zealand; Los Angeles County Museum of Art (Los Angeles)     Hawaiian pendant; 18th–19th century; whalebone; height: 6 cm, width, 3.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)     Hawaiian pendant; 18th–19th century; whalebone; height: 6 cm, width, 3.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)     Breast Ornament (civa vonovono); circa 1850; whale ivory, pearl shell and fiber; height: 12.7 cm, diameter: 17.78 cm; from Fiji; Los Angeles County Museum of Art     Breast Ornament (civa vonovono); circa 1850; whale ivory, pearl shell and fiber; height: 12.7 cm, diameter: 17.78 cm; from Fiji; Los Angeles County Museum of Art Modern Gold and gemstone contemporary jewellery design Male hand with modern silver rings, one with a tribal motive. Most modern commercial jewellery continues traditional forms and styles, but designers such as Georg Jensen have widened the concept of wearable art. The advent of new materials, such as plastics, Precious Metal Clay (PMC), and colouring techniques, has led to increased variety in styles. Other advances, such as the development of improved pearl harvesting by people such as Mikimoto Kōkichi and the development of improved quality artificial gemstones such as moissanite (a diamond simulant), has placed jewellery within the economic grasp of a much larger segment of the population. The "jewellery as art" movement was spearheaded by artisans such as Robert Lee Morris and continued by designers such as Gill Forsbrook in the UK. Influence from other cultural forms is also evident. One example of this is bling-bling style jewellery, popularised by hip-hop and rap artists in the early 21st century, e.g. grills, a type of jewellery worn over the teeth. Indian actress Shraddha Kapoor showcasing modern Indian-style jewellery The late 20th century saw the blending of European design with oriental techniques such as Mokume-gane. The following are innovations in the decades straddling the year 2000: "Mokume-gane, hydraulic die forming, anti-clastic raising, fold-forming, reactive metal anodising, shell forms, PMC, photoetching, and [use of] CAD/CAM."[70] Also, 3D printing as a production technique gains more and more importance. With a great variety of services offering this production method, jewellery design becomes accessible to a growing number of creatives. An important advantage of using 3d printing are the relatively low costs for prototypes, small batch series or unique and personalized designs. Shapes that are hard or impossible to create by hand can often be realized by 3D printing. Popular materials to print include polyamide, steel and wax (latter for further processing). Every printable material has its very own constraints that have to be considered while designing the piece of jewellery using 3D modelling software. Artisan jewellery continues to grow as both a hobby and a profession. With more than 17 United States periodicals about beading alone, resources, accessibility, and a low initial cost of entry continues to expand production of hand-made adornments. Some fine examples of artisan jewellery can be seen at The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City.[71] The increase in numbers of students choosing to study jewellery design and production in Australia has grown in the past 20 years, and Australia now has a thriving contemporary jewellery community. Many of these jewellers have embraced modern materials and techniques, as well as incorporating traditional workmanship. More expansive use of metal to adorn the wearer, where the piece is larger and more elaborate than what would normally be considered jewellery, has come to be referred to by designers and fashion writers as metal couture.[72][73] Masonic Types of masonic collar jewels Freemasons attach jewels to their detachable collars when in Lodge to signify a Brothers Office held with the Lodge. For example, the square represents the Master of the Lodge and the dove represents the Deacon. Body modification A Padaung girl in Northern Thailand Jewellery used in body modification can be simple and plain or dramatic and extreme. The use of simple silver studs, rings, and earrings predominates. Common jewellery pieces such as earrings are a form of body modification, as they are accommodated by creating a small hole in the ear. Padaung women in Myanmar place large golden rings around their necks. From as early as five years old, girls are introduced to their first neck ring. Over the years, more rings are added. In addition to the twenty-plus pounds of rings on her neck, a woman will also wear just as many rings on her calves. At their extent, some necks modified like this can reach 10–15 in (25–38 cm) long. The practice has health impacts and has in recent years declined from cultural norm to tourist curiosity.[74] Tribes related to the Padaung, as well as other cultures throughout the world, use jewellery to stretch their earlobes or enlarge ear piercings. In the Americas, labrets have been worn since before first contact by Innu and First Nations peoples of the northwest coast.[75] Lip plates have been worn by the African Mursi and Sara people, as well as some South American peoples. In the late twentieth century, the influence of modern primitivism led to many of these practices being incorporated into western subcultures. Many of these practices rely on a combination of body modification and decorative objects, thus keeping the distinction between these two types of decoration blurred. In many cultures, jewellery is used as a temporary body modifier; in some cases, with hooks or other objects being placed into the recipient's skin. Although this procedure is often carried out by tribal or semi-tribal groups, often acting under a trance during religious ceremonies, this practice has seeped into western culture. Many extreme-jewellery shops now cater to people wanting large hooks or spikes set into their skin. Most often, these hooks are used in conjunction with pulleys to hoist the recipient into the air. This practice is said to give an erotic feeling to the person and some couples have even performed their marriage ceremony whilst being suspended by hooks.[74] Jewellery market The Oulun Koru jewellery shop at the Kirkkokatu street in Oulu, Finland According to a 2007 KPMG study,[76] the largest jewellery market is the United States with a market share of 31%, Japan, India, China, and the Middle East each with 8–9%, and Italy with 5%. The authors of the study predicted a dramatic change in market shares by 2015, where the market share of the United States will have dropped to around 25%, and China and India will increase theirs to over 13%. The Trend of buying jewellery online is also increasing day by day, as a result the best quality jewellery can be provided at a cheaper price to any part of India via many online shops. The Middle East will remain more or less constant at 9%, whereas Europe's and Japan's market share will be halved and become less than 4% for Japan, and less than 3% for the biggest individual European countries, Italy and the UK. See also     Bronze and brass ornamental work     Estate jewelry     Heirloom     Gemology     Jewellery cleaning     Jewellery of the Berber cultures     Jewellery Quarter     Jewelry Television     List of jewellery types     List of topics characterized as pseudoscience (healing jewelry)     Live insect jewelry     Suffrage jewellery     Wire sculpture References Study reveals 'oldest jewellery' Archived 2018-06-12 at the Wayback Machine, BBC News, June 22, 2006. jewel. (n.d.). Archived 2016-03-07 at the Wayback Machine Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Retrieved on August 7, 2007, from the Dictionary.com website. see American and British spelling differences Kunz, PhD, DSc, George Frederick (1917). Magic of Jewels and Charms. John Lippincott Co. URL: Magic Of jewels: Chapter VII Amulets Archived 2013-12-13 at the Wayback Machine George Frederick Kunz, a gemmologist for Tiffany's, built the collections of banker J.P. Morgan and of the American Natural History Museum in New York City. This chapter deals entirely with using jewels and gemstones in jewellery for talismanic purposes in Western cultures. Manutchehr-Danai, Mohsen, ed. (2009). "magical jewelry". Dictionary of Gems and Gemology. Berlin: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-72816-0. ISBN 978-3-540-72795-8. "magical jewelry [...] articles of jewelry worn for their magical belief, medicinal powers, or superstitions reasons." "BBC – History – Ancient History in depth: Viking Money". Archived from the original on 2014-02-10. Retrieved 2017-11-10. Web Team, Victoria and Albert Museum, Online Museum (2011-01-13). "Trade Beads". www.vam.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2022-01-08. Retrieved 2017-11-10. Holland, J. 1999. The Kingfisher History Encyclopedia. Kingfisher books. Morris, Desmond. Body Guards: Protective Amulets and Charms. Element, 1999, ISBN 1862045720. McCreight, Tim. Jewelry: Fundamentals of Metalsmithing. Design Books International, 1997, ISBN 1880140292. "Home – GIA.edu" (PDF). gia.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-26. Pliny. Natural History, XXXVI, 15 "Natural Diamond: World Production, By Country And Type". indexmundi.com. Archived from the original on 2018-06-25. Retrieved 2007-08-07. "Diamonds Are a Girl's Worst Friend: The trouble with engagement rings". Archived 2011-09-24 at the Wayback Machine. by Meghan O'Rourke at Slate.com, June 11, 2007. "What is a Solitaire Setting". GIA.edu. Gemological Institute of America. 6 June 2012. Archived from the original on 21 December 2019. Retrieved 21 December 2019. "What does solitaire ring look like?". TIDAN. tidanapp.com. Archived from the original on 5 December 2021. Retrieved 6 May 2020. Nassau, K. (1980). Gems made by man. ISBN 0801967732. Pliny the Elder. The Natural History. ed. John Bostock, Henry Thomas Riley, Book XXXIII The Natural History of Metals Online at the Perseus Project Archived 2008-04-11 at the Wayback Machine Chapter 4. Accessed July 2006 Howard, Vicky. "A real Man's Ring: Gender and the Invention of Tradition." Journal of Social History, Summer 2003, pp 837–856. Yusuf al-Qaradawi. The Lawful and Prohibited in Islam (online) Archived 2011-10-13 at the Wayback Machine Greenbaum, Toni. "Silver Speaks: Traditional Jewelry From the Middle East". Metalsmith, Winter 2004, Vol. 24, Issue 1, p. 56. Greenbaum provides the explanation for the lack of historical examples "Stone Bracelet May Have Been Made by Denisovans". 2015. Archived from the original on 2018-09-25. Retrieved 2015-05-10. "A stone bracelet unearthed in Denisova Cave in the Altai Mountains of Siberia in 2008 is being called the oldest-known jewelry of its kind. Anatoly Derevyanko, director of the Russian Academy of Sciences' Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography, and the research team believe that the cave's Denisovan layers were uncontaminated by human activity from a later period. The soil around the two fragments of the jewelry piece was dated with oxygen isotopic analysis to 40,000 years ago. "In the same layer, where we found a Denisovan bone, were found interesting things; until then it was believed these were the hallmark of the emergence of Homo sapiens. First of all, there were symbolic items, such as jewelry, including the stone bracelet as well as a ring, carved out of marble," Derevyanko told The Siberian Times" Milner, Nicky (2016). "A Unique Engraved Shale Pendant from the Site of Star Carr: the oldest Mesolithic art in Britain" (PDF). Internet Archaeology (40). doi:10.11141/ia.40.8. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-07-22. The Austrian Independent News and Pictures. "Cavewoman jeweller rewrites gender history". austrianindependent.com. Archived from the original on 2012-10-07. Retrieved 2012-10-05. Reader's Digest Association. 1986. The last 2 million years. Reader's Digest. ISBN 0864380070 Camps-Fabrer, Henriette (1991-12-01). "Bijoux". Encyclopédie berbère (in French) (10): 1496–1516. doi:10.4000/encyclopedieberbere.1758. ISSN 1015-7344. Archived from the original on 2023-07-18. Retrieved 2023-12-08. [1] Archived 2022-11-01 at the Wayback Machine Gems and Gemstones: Timeless Natural Beauty of the Mineral World, By Lance Grande (https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/varna-bulgaria-gold-graves-social-hierarchy-prehistoric-archaelogy-smithsonian-journeys-travel-quarterly-180958733/ Archived 2023-07-18 at the Wayback Machine) (https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/oldest-gold-object-unearthed-bulgaria-180960093/ Archived 2019-09-28 at the Wayback Machine) "Archaeologists have discovered the oldest treasure in the world – Afrinik". 15 May 2021. Archived from the original on 26 December 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2023. Nemet-Nejat, Daily Life, 155–157. Nemet-Nejat, Daily Life, 295–297. Nemet-Nejat, Daily Life, 297. Smith, David Michael (2017). Ancient Greece Pocket Museum. Thames and Hudson. p. 251. ISBN 978-0500519585. Jewellery Through 7000 Years. British Museum Publications. 1976. pp. 65–86. ISBN 978-0714100548. Deppert-Lippitz, Barbara; Bromberg, Anne R.; Dennis, John (1996). "Ch. 4 Europe and Western". Ancient Gold Jewelry at the Dallas Museum of Art. Dallas Museum of Art. pp. 88–89. ISBN 978-0936227191. Treister, Mikhail (2004). "Polychrome Necklaces from the Late Hellenistic Period". Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia. 10 (3): 199–257. doi:10.1163/1570057042596388. Smith, David Michael (2017). Ancient Greece Pocket Museum. Thames and Hudson. p. 79. ISBN 978-0500519585. Nelson, E. C., Mavrofridis, G., & Anagnostopoulos, I. T. (2020). "Natural History of a Bronze Age Jewel Found in Crete: The Malia Pendant". The Antiquaries Journal, 1–12. doi:10.1017/S0003581520000475 Somerville, Orna. "Kite-Shaped Brooches". Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, volume 123, 1993. pp. 59–101. JSTOR 25509045 Duby Georges and Philippe Ariès, eds. A History of Private Life Vol 1 – From Pagan Rome to Byzantium. Harvard, 1987. p 506 Duby, throughout. Sherrard, P. (1972). Great Ages of Man: Byzantium. Time-Life International. Scarisbrick, Diana. Rings: Symbols of Wealth, Power, and Affection. New York: Abrams, 1993. ISBN 0810937751 p. 77. Farndon, J. (2001). 1,000 Facts on Modern History. Miles Kelly Publishing. Ilse-Neuman, Ursula. Book review Schmuck/Jewellery 1840–1940: Highlights from the Schmuckmuseum Pforzheim. Metalsmith. Fall2006, Vol. 26 Issue 3, pp. 12–13 Anonymous (2013). A history of feminine fashion. Nabu Press. p. 71. ISBN 978-1289626945. Constantino, Maria. Art Nouveau. Knickerbocker Press; 1999 ISBN 1577150740 as well as Ilse-Neuman 2006. Pal, Sanchari. "Maharajas, Myths and Mysteries: The Fascinating History of India's Jewels and Jewellery". Archived from the original on 2023-11-19. Retrieved 2023-11-19. Untracht, Oppi. Traditional Jewellery of India. New York: Abrams, 1997 ISBN 0810938863. p. 15. Lu, Peter J., "Early Precision Compound Machine from Ancient China." Science, 6/11/2004, Vol. 304, Issue 5677 Yuan, Li (27 March 2019). "No Earrings, Tattoos or Cleavage: Inside China's War on Fun". the new york times. Archived from the original on 2022-05-21. Retrieved 2022-05-21. Reader's Digest Association. 1983. Vanished Civilisations. Reader's Digest. "Bangles". Tamilnadu.com. 4 March 2013. Archived from the original on 18 October 2013. Retrieved 14 March 2013. "When showstopper Juhi walked down the ramp". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 14 June 2013. Retrieved 16 June 2013. Untracht, Oppi (1997). Traditional Jewelry of India. Harry N. Abrams. p. 278. ISBN 978-0810938861. Prior, Katherine; Adamson, John (2000). Maharajas' Jewels. New York: Vendome Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0865652187. From Bahadur Shah Zafar to the Nizam of Hyderabad, a jewellery brand for the royals Archived 2023-09-30 at the Wayback Machine, The Print, 5 Nov 2022. Prior, Katherine (2000). Traditional Jewelry of India. New York: Vendome. p. 312. Kaur, Prabhjot. "Women and Jewelry – The Traditional and Religious Dimensions of Ornamentation". Larco Hoyle, Rafael (2008). Museo Larco. Experience Ancient Peru. Lima: Museo Larco. ISBN 978-9972934124. "Ancient Platinum Technology in South America". technology.matthey.com. Archived from the original on 22 April 2023. Retrieved 22 April 2023. Miller, Mary Ellen; Taube, Karl A. (1993). The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya: An Illustrated Dictionary of Mesoamerican Religion. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0500050682. Josephy Jr, A.M. (1994). 500 Nations: The Illustrated History of North American Indians. Alfred A. Knopf. Inc. Dubin, 17 "Haida Jewelry". Archived from the original on 16 March 2020. Retrieved 22 January 2020. Neich, R., Pereira, F. 2004. Pacific Jewellery and Adornment. David Bateman & Auckland Museum. ISBN 1869535359. Dorling Kindersley Ltd. 1989. Facts and Fallacies: Stories of the Strange and Unusual. Reader's Digest. 11–13. "Maori customary adornment". Te Papa. 2010-06-02. Archived from the original on 2010-06-02. "Maori made and wore items of jewellery..."" McCrieght, Tim. "What's New?" Metalsmith Spring 2006, Vol. 26 Issue 1, pp. 42–45 "Nineteenth-Century American Jewelry". metmuseum.org. Archived from the original on 2006-12-14. Retrieved 2006-09-25. Mohemad, Dena. "Manuel Albarran Metal Couture" Archived 2016-04-11 at the Wayback Machine. Pushit Journal – News Ilbarra, Sabina (May 5, 2014) "Q & A with Manuel Albarran" Archived 2016-04-13 at the Wayback Machine. Living Out Loud Packard, M. (2002). Ripley's Believe It or Not Special Edition. Scholastic Inc. p. 22. Treister, Mikhail (2004). "George Catlin among the Nayas: Understanding the Practice of Labret Wearing on the Northwest Coast". Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia. 10 (3): 199–257. doi:10.1163/1570057042596388. JSTOR 483428.     KPMG India (2007). "Global Jewelry Consumption". Gems and Gemology. XLIII (Summer 2007): 180. Further reading     Borel, F. 1994. The Splendor of Ethnic Jewelry: from the Colette and Jean-Pierre Ghysels Collection. New York: H.N. Abrams (ISBN 0810929937).     Evans, J. 1989. A History of Jewellery 1100–1870 (ISBN 0486261220).     LaGamma, Alisa (1991). Metropolitan jewelry. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0870996160.     Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea 1998. Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press (ISBN 0313294976).     Tait, H. 1986. Seven Thousand Years of Jewellery. London: British Museum Publications (ISBN 0714120340). External links     Media related to Jewellery at Wikimedia Commons     Works related to Jewellery at Wikisource     The dictionary definition of jewellery at Wiktionary     vte Jewellery Forms     Anklet Barrette Belly chain Belt buckle Bindi Bolo tie Bracelet Brooch Chatelaine Collar pin Crown Cufflink Earring Ferronnière Genital Lapel pin Necklace Neck ring Pectoral Pendant Ring Tiara Tie chain Tie clip Tie pin Toe ring Watch         pocket strap Making People     Bench jeweler Clockmaker Goldsmith Jewellery designer Lapidarist Silversmith Watchmaker Processes     Carving Casting         centrifugal lost-wax vacuum Enameling Engraving Filigree Kazaziye Metal clay Plating Polishing Repoussé and chasing Soldering Stonesetting Wire sculpture Wire wrapped jewelry Tools     Draw plate File Hammer Mandrel Pliers Materials Precious metals     Gold Palladium Platinum Rhodium Silver Precious metal alloys     Britannia silver Colored gold Crown gold Electrum Shakudō Shibuichi Sterling silver         Argentium Tumbaga Base metals     Brass Bronze Copper Mokume-gane Nickel silver (alpacca) Pewter Pinchbeck Stainless steel Titanium Tungsten Mineral gemstones     Agate Amazonite Amethyst Aventurine Beryl (red) Carnelian Chrysoberyl Chrysocolla Diamond Diopside Emerald Fluorite Garnet Howlite Jade Jasper Kyanite Labradorite Lapis lazuli Larimar Malachite Marcasite Moonstone Obsidian Onyx Opal Peridot Prasiolite Quartz (smoky) Ruby Sapphire Sodalite Spinel Sunstone Tanzanite Tiger's eye Topaz Tourmaline Turquoise Variscite Zircon Organic gemstones     Abalone Amber Ammolite Copal Coral         Black Precious Ivory Jet Nacre Operculum Pearl Tortoiseshell Other natural objects     Bezoar Bog-wood Ebonite (vulcanite) Gutta-percha Hair Shell         Spondylus shell Toadstone Terms     Art jewelry Carat (mass) Carat (purity) Finding Fineness Related topics     Body piercing     Fashion     Gemology     Metalworking     Phaleristics     Wearable art     vte Prehistoric technology     Prehistory         Timeline Outline Stone Age Subdivisions New Stone Age Technology         history Glossary Tools Farming     Neolithic Revolution         Founder crops New World crops Ard / plough Celt Digging stick Domestication Goad Irrigation Secondary products Sickle Terracing Food processing     Fire Basket Cooking         Earth oven Granaries Grinding slab Ground stone Hearth         Aşıklı Höyük Qesem cave Manos Metate Mortar and pestle Pottery Quern-stone Storage pits Hunting     Arrow Boomerang         throwing stick Bow and arrow         history Nets Spear         spear-thrower baton harpoon woomera Schöningen spears Projectile points     Arrowhead Bare Island Cascade Clovis Cresswell Cumberland Eden Folsom Lamoka Manis Mastodon Plano Transverse arrowhead Systems     Game drive system         Buffalo jump Toolmaking     Earliest toolmaking         Oldowan Acheulean Mousterian Aurignacian Clovis culture Cupstone Fire hardening Gravettian culture Hafting Hand axe         Grooves Langdale axe industry Levallois technique Lithic core Lithic reduction         analysis debitage flake Lithic technology Magdalenian culture Metallurgy Microblade technology Mining Prepared-core technique Solutrean industry Striking platform Tool stone Uniface Yubetsu technique Other tools     Adze Awl         bone Axe Bannerstone Blade         prismatic Bone tool Bow drill Burin Canoe         Oar Pesse canoe Chopper         tool Cleaver Denticulate tool Fire plough Fire-saw Hammerstone Knife Microlith Quern-stone Racloir Rope Scraper         side Stone tool Tally stick Weapons Wheel         illustration Architecture Ceremonial     Kiva Pyramid Standing stones         megalith row Stonehenge Dwellings     Neolithic architecture         long house British megalith architecture Nordic megalith architecture Burdei Cave Cliff dwelling Dugout Hut         Quiggly hole Jacal Longhouse Mudbrick         Mehrgarh Pit-house Pueblitos Pueblo Rock shelter         Blombos Cave Abri de la Madeleine Sibudu Cave Roundhouse Stilt house         Alp pile dwellings Stone roof Wattle and daub Water management     Check dam Cistern Flush toilet Reservoir Well Other architecture     Archaeological features Broch Burnt mound         fulacht fiadh Causewayed enclosure         Tor enclosure Circular enclosure         Goseck Cursus Henge         Thornborough Megalithic architectural elements Midden Oldest surviving buildings Timber circle Timber trackway         Sweet Track Arts and culture Material goods     Baskets Beadwork Beds Chalcolithic Clothing/textiles         timeline Cosmetics Glue Hides         shoes Ötzi Jewelry         amber use Mirrors Pottery         Cardium Cord-marked Grooved ware Linear Jōmon Unstan ware Sewing needle Weaving Wine         winery wine press Prehistoric art     Art of the Upper Paleolithic Art of the Middle Paleolithic         Blombos Cave List of Stone Age art Bird stone Cairn Carved stone balls Cave paintings Cup and ring mark Geoglyph Golden hats Guardian stones Gwion Gwion rock paintings         painting pigment Megalithic art Petroform Petroglyph Petrosomatoglyph Pictogram Rock art         Rock cupule Stone carving Sculpture Statue menhir Stone circle         list British Isles and Brittany Venus figurine Burial     Burial mounds         Bowl barrow Round barrow Mound Builders culture         U.S. sites Chamber tomb         Cotswold-Severn Cist         Dartmoor kistvaens Clava cairn Court tomb Cremation Dolmen         Great dolmen Funeral pyre Gallery grave         transepted wedge-shaped Grave goods Jar burial Long barrow         unchambered Grønsalen Megalithic tomb Mummy Passage grave Rectangular dolmen Ring cairn Simple dolmen Stone box grave Tor cairn Unchambered long cairn Other cultural     Archaeoastronomy         sites lunar calendar Behavioral modernity Evolutionary musicology         music archaeology Evolutionary origin of religions         Paleolithic religion Prehistoric religion Spiritual drug use Origin of language Prehistoric counting Prehistoric medicine         trepanning Prehistoric music         Alligator drum flutes Divje Babe flute gudi Prehistoric warfare Symbols         symbolism     vte Clothing Terminology Headwear     Beret Cap         Baseball Flat Knit Hat         Boater Bowler Fedora Homburg Top Helmet Hood Kerchief Mask Turban Veil Neckwear     Bands Choker Clerical collar Lavallière Neckerchief Neck gaiter Necktie         Ascot Bolo Bow School Stock Scarf Tippet Tops     Blouse         Cache-cœur Crop top Halterneck Tube top Cycling Kurta Mantle Shirt         Dress Henley Polo Sleeveless T Sweater         Cardigan Guernsey Hoodie Jersey Polo neck Shrug Sweater vest Twinset Waistcoat Trousers     Bell-bottoms Bondage Capri Cargo Chaps Formal Go-to-hell High water Lowrise Jeans Jodhpurs Overalls Palazzo Parachute Pedal pushers Phat Shorts         Bermuda Cycling Dolphin Gym Hotpants Running Slim-fit Sweatpants Windpants Yoga pants Suits and uniforms     Ceremonial dress         Academic Court Diplomatic Folk Jodhpuri Jumpsuit Military         Full Mess Service             Sailor Combat Pantsuit Religious         Cassock Clerical Vestment School Prison Workwear         Boilersuit Cleanroom Hazmat Space Scrubs Dresses and gowns Formal, semi- formal, informal     Backless Bouffant gown Coatdress Cocktail         Little black Evening         Ball gown Debutante Princess line Strapless Wedding Wrap Casual     House Jumper Romper suit Sheath Shirtdress Slip Sundress Skirts     A-line Ballerina Denim Men's Miniskirt Pencil Prairie Rah-rah Sarong Skort Tutu Wrap Underwear and lingerie Top     Bra Camisole Undershirt Bottom     Diaper Training pants Leggings Panties Plastic pants Slip Thong Underpants         Boxer briefs Boxer shorts Briefs Full     Bodysuit, adult Bodysuit, infant Long underwear See-through Teddy Coats and outerwear Overcoats     Car Chesterfield Covert Duffel Duster Greatcoat         British Warm Guards Coat Greca Over-frock Riding         Shadbelly Trench Ulster Cloak         Opera Paletot Pea Polo Raincoat         Mackintosh Suit coats     Frock coat         Bekishe Rekel Mess jacket Suit jacket         Blazer Smoking Sports Teba Tailcoat         Dress Morning Other     Apron         Pinafore Blouson Cagoule Cape         Ferraiolo Inverness Mantle, Monastic Mantle, Royal Mozzetta Pellegrina Coatee Cut-off Gilet Jacket         Down Flight Goggle Harrington Leather Mackinaw Norfolk Safari Jerkin Lab coat Parka Poncho Robe         Bathrobe Dressing gown Shawl Ski suit Sleeved blanket Windbreaker Nightwear     Babydoll Babygrow Blanket sleeper Negligee Nightgown Nightshirt Pajamas Swimwear     Bikini Burkini Boardshorts Dry suit Monokini One-piece Rash guard Sling Square leg suit Swim briefs Swim diaper Trunks Wetsuit Footwear     Boot Court shoe Dress boot Dress shoe Flip-flops Sandal Shoe Slipper Sneaker Legwear     Sock Hold-ups Garter Pantyhose Stocking Tights Accessories     Belt Boutonnière Coin purse Cufflink Cummerbund Gaiters Glasses Gloves Headband Handbag Jewellery Livery Muff Pocket protector Pocket watch Sash Spats Sunglasses Suspenders Umbrella Wallet Watch Dress codes Western     Formal         Morning dress White tie Semi-formal         Black lounge suit Black tie Informal Casual Related     Clothing fetish Clothing swap Costume         creature suit Halloween costume Cross-dressing Environmental impact Fashion         Haute couture Made-to-measure Ready-to-wear Fur clothing         types Fursuit Global trade of secondhand clothing Laws List of individual dresses Reconstructed clothing Right to clothing Vintage clothing icon Clothing portal     vte Decorative arts and handicrafts     History Textile     Banner-making Canvas work Crocheting Cross-stitch Embroidery Felting Friendship bracelet Knitting Lace-making Lucet Macrame Millinery Needlepoint Needlework Patchwork Quilting Ribbon embroidery Rug hooking Rug making Sewing Shoemaking Spinning (textiles) String art Tapestry Tatting Tie-dye Weaving Paper     Altered book Bookbinding Calligraphy Cardmaking Cast paper Collage         Decoupage Papier collé Photomontage Iris folding Jianzhi Kamikiri Origami         Kirigami Moneygami Embossing Marbling Papercraft Papercutting         Chinese Jewish Slavic     Papermaking Paper toys Papier-mâché Pop-up book Quilling Scrapbooking Stamping Wallpaper Wood     Bentwood Cabinetry Carpentry Chip carving Ébéniste Fretwork Intarsia Marquetry Wood burning Wood carving Woodturning Ceramic     Azulejo Bone china Earthenware Porcelain Pottery Stoneware Terracotta Glass     Cameo glass Chip work Enamelled glass Glass etching Glassware Mirror Stained glass Metal     Chemical milling Enamel Engraving Etching Jewellery Goldsmith Silversmith Bronze and brass ornamental work Ironwork Other     Assemblage Balloon modelling Beadwork Bone carving Doll making Dollhouse Egg decorating Engraved gems Faux painting Grotesque         Gargoyle Hardstone carving Lath art Lapidary Leatherworking Miniatures Micromosaic Mosaic         Glass mosaic Ornament Pargeting Pietra dura Private press Pressed flower craft Qing handicrafts Scrimshaw Straw marquetry Taxidermy Wall decal Authority control databases Edit this at Wikidata National     France         2 BnF data         2 Israel United States Czech Republic Other     Historical Dictionary of Switzerland         2 NARA Categories:     JewelleryFashion accessoriesHuman appearanceTypes of jewellery Peace Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For other uses, see Peace (disambiguation). "Peacetime" redirects here. For the album, see Peacetime (album). For the film, see Peacetime (film). Peace dove statue in Lomé, Togo, Africa. The dove and the olive branch are the most common symbols associated with peace.[1] Statue of Eirene, goddess of peace in ancient Greek religion, with the infant Plutus Peace means societal friendship and harmony in the absence of hostility and violence. In a social sense, peace is commonly used to mean a lack of conflict (such as war) and freedom from fear of violence between individuals or groups. "Psychological peace" (such as peaceful thinking and emotions) is less well-defined, yet perhaps a necessary precursor to establishing "behavioural peace". Peaceful behaviour sometimes results from a "peaceful inner disposition". It has been argued by some that inner qualities such as tranquility, patience, respect, compassion, kindness, self-control, courage, moderation, forgiveness, equanimity, and the ability to see the big picture can promote peace within an individual, regardless of the external circumstances of their life.[2] Etymology Before the word 'peace' came into English lexicon, Anglo-Saxons used a phrase "friðu sibb" for "pledge of peace". The term 'peace' originates from the Anglo-French pes, and the Old French pais, meaning "peace, reconciliation, silence, agreement" (11th century).[3] The Anglo-French term pes itself comes from the Latin pax, meaning "peace, compact, agreement, treaty of peace, tranquility, absence of hostility, harmony." The English word came into use in various personal greetings from c. 1300 as a translation of the Hebrew word shalom, which, according to Jewish theology, comes from a Hebrew verb meaning 'to be complete, whole'.[4] Although "peace" is the usual translation, it is an incomplete one, because shalom, which is also cognate with the Arabic salaam, has multiple other meanings in addition to peace, including justice, good health, safety, well-being, prosperity, equity, security, good fortune, and friendliness, as well as simply the greetings, "hello" and "goodbye".[5] On a personal level, peaceful behaviours are kind, considerate, respectful, just, and tolerant of others' beliefs and behaviors – tending to manifest goodwill. This understanding of peace can also pertain to an individual's introspective sense or concept of her/himself, as in being "at peace" in one's own mind, as found in European references from c. 1200. The early English term is also used in the sense of "quiet", reflecting calm, serene, and meditative approaches to family or group relationships that have a absence of quarreling, disturbances and agitation; but seek clarity of conversation, and tranquility. In many languages, the word 'peace' is also used as a greeting or a farewell, for example the Hawaiian word aloha, as well as the Arabic word salaam. In English the word peace is occasionally used as a farewell, especially for the dead, as in the phrases "rest in peace" or "peace out". History Croeseid coin of Croesus (c. 550 BCE), depicting the Lion and Bull — partly symbolizing alliance between Lydia and Greece, respectively Peace was forged through diplomacy in the form of royal marriages, both in the distant past and in modern times. Two early examples of royal marriages being used to establish diplomatic relations are Hermodike I, who married the king of Phrygia around 800 BCE,[6] and Hermodike II, who married the king of Lydia around 600 BCE.[7] Both marriages involved Greek princesses from the house of Agamemnon and kings from what is now Turkey.[8] The marriages between the Greek princesses and the kings of Phrygia and Lydia had a significant impact on the region, leading to the transfer of important technological innovations from Anatolia to Greece. In particular, the Phrygians introduced the Greek alphabet, while the Lydians pioneered the use of coinage as a form of currency. Both inventions were rapidly adopted by surrounding nations through further trade and cooperation. Peace has not always been achieved through peaceful means; in many cases, it has been enforced by the victors of war, often through the use of violence and coercion. In his work Agricola, the Roman historian Tacitus, writes passionately and critically about the greed and arrogance of the Roman Empire, portraying it as a ruthless and self-serving power. One, that Tacitus says is by the Caledonian chieftain Calgacus, ends with: "Auferre trucidare rapere falsis nominibus imperium, atque ubi solitudinem faciunt, pacem appellant." ("To ravage, to slaughter, to usurp under false titles, they call empire; and where they make a desert, they call it peace." —Oxford Revised Translation). Discussion of peace is therefore at the same time an inquiry into its form. Is it simply the absence of mass organized killing (war), or does peace require a particular morality and justice? (just peace).[9] Societal peace can be seen at least in two forms: A simple silence of arms, absence of war. Absence of war accompanied by particular requirements for the mutual settlement of relations, which are characterized by justice, mutual respect, respect for law, and good will. Since 1945, the United Nations and the United Nations Security Council have operated under the aim to resolve conflicts without war. Nonetheless, nations have entered numerous military conflicts since then. Organizations and prizes United Nations Main article: United Nations See also: List of United Nations peacekeeping missions UN peacekeeping missions. Dark blue regions indicate current missions, while light blue regions represent former missions. The United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achieving world peace. The UN was founded in 1945 after World War II to replace the League of Nations, to stop wars between countries, and to provide a platform for dialogue. After authorization by the Security Council, the UN sends peacekeepers to regions where armed conflict has recently ceased or paused to enforce the terms of peace agreements and to discourage combatants from resuming hostilities. Since the UN does not maintain its own military, peacekeeping forces are voluntarily provided by member states of the UN. The forces, also called the "Blue Helmets", who enforce UN accords are awarded United Nations Medals, which are considered international decorations instead of military decorations. The peacekeeping force as a whole received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1988. Police Main article: Police The obligation of the state to provide for domestic peace within its borders is usually charged to the police and other general domestic policing activities. The police are a constituted body of persons empowered by a state to enforce the law, to protect the lives, liberty and possessions of citizens, and to prevent crime and civil disorder.[10] Their powers include the power of arrest and the legitimized use of force. The term is most commonly associated with the police forces of a sovereign state that are authorized to exercise the police power of that state within a defined legal or territorial area of responsibility. Police forces are often defined as being separate from the military and other organizations involved in the defense of the state against foreign aggressors; however, gendarmerie are military units charged with civil policing.[11] Police forces are usually public sector services, funded through taxes. National security Main article: National security The national security apparatus of a nation is responsible for providing peace and security against foreign threats and aggression. National security can be threatened by a range of factors, including actions by other states (such as military or cyber attacks), violent non-state actors (such as terrorist attacks), organized criminal groups (such as narcotic cartels), and natural disasters (such as floods and earthquakes).[12]: v, 1–8 [13] Systemic drivers of insecurity, which may be transnational, include economic inequality and marginalisation, political exclusion, climate change, and nuclear proliferation.[13] In view of the wide range of risks, the preservation of peace and the security of a nation state have several dimensions, including economic security, energy security, physical security, environmental security, food security, border security, and cyber security. These dimensions correlate closely with elements of national power. League of Nations The principal forerunner of the United Nations was the League of Nations. It was created at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, and emerged from the advocacy of Woodrow Wilson and other idealists during World War I. The Covenant of the League of Nations was included in the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, and the League was based in Geneva until its dissolution as a result of World War II and replacement by the United Nations. The high hopes widely held for the League in the 1920s, for example amongst members of the League of Nations Union, gave way to widespread disillusion in the 1930s as the League struggled to respond to challenges from Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Japan. The prominent scholar, Sir Alfred Eckhard Zimmern, who is widely regarded as one of the most influential intellectuals of the League of Nations, drew inspiration for his studies from the classics, along with other British scholars such as Gilbert Murray and Florence Stawell. This group of scholars is often referred to as the "Greece and peace" set, due to their shared interest in ancient Greek civilization and the promotion of peace. The creation of the League of Nations, and the hope for informed public opinion on international issues (expressed for example by the Union for Democratic Control during World War I), also saw the creation after World War I of bodies dedicated to understanding international affairs, such as the Council on Foreign Relations in New York and the Royal Institute of International Affairs at Chatham House in London. At the same time, the academic study of international relations started to professionalise, with the creation of the first professorship of international politics, named for Woodrow Wilson, at Aberystwyth, Wales, in 1919. Olympic Games The late 19th century idealist advocacy of peace which led to the creation of the Nobel Peace Prize, the Rhodes Scholarships, the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, and ultimately the League of Nations, also saw the re-emergence of the ancient Olympic ideal. Led by Pierre de Coubertin, this culminated in the holding in 1896 of the first of the modern Olympic Games. Nobel Peace Prize Main article: Nobel Peace Prize Henry Dunant was awarded the first Nobel Peace Prize for his role in founding the International Red Cross. Since 1901, the Nobel Peace Prize has been the world's most prestigious honor given to individuals or organizations who have made significant contributions to peace. The prize is awarded by the Norwegian Nobel Committee, a group of five individuals chosen by the Norwegian parliament. Nominees for the prize come from around the world, and are often those who have worked to end conflict, protect human rights, or promote humanitarian efforts. It is awarded annually to internationally notable persons following the prize's creation in the will of Alfred Nobel. According to Nobel's will, the Peace Prize shall be awarded to the person who "...shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies, and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses."[14] Rhodes, Fulbright and Schwarzman scholarships In creating the Rhodes Scholarships for outstanding students from the United States, Germany and much of the British Empire, Cecil Rhodes wrote in 1901 that 'the object is that an understanding between the three great powers will render war impossible and educational relations make the strongest tie'.[15] This peace purpose of the Rhodes Scholarships was very prominent in the first half of the 20th century, and became prominent again in recent years under Warden of the Rhodes House Donald Markwell,[16] a historian of thought about the causes of war and peace.[17] This vision greatly influenced Senator J. William Fulbright in the goal of the Fulbright fellowships to promote international understanding and peace, and has guided many other international fellowship programs,[18] including the Schwarzman Scholars to China created by Stephen A. Schwarzman in 2013.[19] Gandhi Peace Prize Main article: Gandhi Peace Prize Mahatma Gandhi The International Gandhi Peace Prize, named after Mahatma Gandhi, is awarded annually by the Government of India. It was launched as a tribute to the ideals espoused by Gandhi in 1995 on the occasion of the 125th anniversary of his birth. This is an annual award given to individuals and institutions for their contributions towards social, economic and political transformation through non-violence and other Gandhian methods. The award carries Rs. 10 million in cash, convertible in any currency in the world, a plaque and a citation. It is open to all persons regardless of nationality, race, creed or sex. Student Peace Prize Main article: Student Peace Prize The Student Peace Prize is awarded biennially to a student or a student organization that has made a significant contribution to promoting peace and human rights. Ahmadiyya Muslim Peace Prize Main article: Ahmadiyya Muslim Peace Prize The Ahmadiyya Muslim Peace Prize, is awarded annually "in recognition of an individual's or an organisation's contribution for the advancement of the cause of peace". The prize was first launched in 2009 by the Ahmadiyya Muslim Peace Prize Committee under the directive of the caliph of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, Mirza Masroor Ahmad. Culture of Peace News Network Main article: Culture of Peace News Network The Culture of Peace News Network, otherwise known simply as CPNN, is a UN authorized interactive online news network, committed to supporting the global movement for a culture of peace. Rainbows: Often used as a symbol of harmony and peace. Sydney Peace Prize Every year in the first week of November, the Sydney Peace Foundation presents the Sydney Peace Prize. The Sydney Peace Prize is awarded to an organization or an individual whose life and work has demonstrated significant contributions to: The achievement of peace with justice locally, nationally or internationally The promotion and attainment of human rights The philosophy, language and practice of non-violence Museums See also: Peace museums A peace museum is a museum that documents historical peace initiatives. Many provide advocacy programs for nonviolent conflict resolution. This may include conflicts at the personal, regional or international level. Smaller institutions include the Randolph Bourne Institute, the McGill Middle East Program of Civil Society and Peace Building and the International Festival of Peace Poetry. Religious beliefs  Religious beliefs often seek to identify and address the basic problems of human life, including conflicts between, among, and within persons and societies. In ancient Greek-speaking areas, the virtue of peace was personified as the goddess Eirene, and in Latin-speaking areas as the goddess Pax. Her image was typically represented by ancient sculptors as a full-grown woman, usually with a horn of plenty and scepter and sometimes with a torch or olive leaves. Christianity Christians, who believe Jesus of Nazareth to be the Jewish Messiah called Christ (meaning Anointed One),[20] interpret Isaiah 9:6 as a messianic prophecy of Jesus in which he is called the "Prince of Peace".[21] In the Gospel of Luke, Zechariah celebrates his son John: "And you, child, will be called the prophet of the Most High; for you will go before the Lord to prepare his ways, to give knowledge of salvation to his people by the forgiveness of their sins. By the tender mercy of our God, the dawn from on high will break upon us, to give light to those who sit in darkness and in the shadow of death, to guide our feet into the way of peace."[22] As a testimony of peace, Peace Churches in the Anabaptist Christian tradition (such as the Mennonites and Quakers), as well Holiness Methodist Pacifists (such as the Immanuel Missionary Church), practice nonresistance and do not participate in warfare.[23] In the Catholic Church, numerous pontifical documents on the Holy Rosary document a continuity of views of the Popes to have confidence in the Holy Rosary as a means to foster peace. In the Encyclical Mense maio, 1965, in which he urged the practice of the Holy Rosary, and as reaffirmed in the encyclical Christi Matri, 1966, to implore peace, Pope Paul VI stated in the apostolic Recurrens mensis, October 1969, that the Rosary is a prayer that favors the great gift of peace. Hinduism Hindu texts contain the following passages: May there be peace in the heavens, peace in the atmosphere, peace on the earth. Let there be coolness in the water, healing in the herbs and peace radiating from the trees. Let there be harmony in the planets and in the stars, and perfection in eternal knowledge. May everything in the universe be at peace. Let peace pervade everywhere, at all times. May I experience that peace within my own heart. — Yajur Veda 36.17 Let us have concord with our own people, and concord with people who are strangers to us. Ashwins (Celestial Twins) create between us and the strangers a unity of hearts. May we unite in our minds, unite in our purposes, and not fight against the heavenly spirit within us. Let not the battle-cry rise amidst many slain, nor the arrows of the war-god fall with the break of day — Yajur Veda 7.52 A superior being does not render evil for evil. This is a maxim one should observe... One should never harm the wicked or the good or even animals meriting death. A noble soul will exercise compassion even towards those who enjoy injuring others or cruel deeds... Who is without fault? — Valmiki, Ramayana The chariot that leads to victory is of another kind. Valour and fortitude are its wheels; Truthfulness and virtuous conduct are its banner; Strength, discretion, self-restraint and benevolence are its four horses, Harnessed with the cords of forgiveness, compassion and equanimity... Whoever has this righteous chariot, has no enemy to conquer anywhere. — Valmiki, Ramayana Buddhism Buddhists believe that peace is attained by ending pain and suffering. They regard pain and suffering is stemming from cravings (in the extreme, greed), aversions (fears), and delusions and suffering is attachments to outcomes. To eliminate such pain and suffering and achieve personal peace, followers in the path of the Buddha adhere to a set of teachings called the Four Noble Truths — a central tenet in Buddhist philosophy. Islam Islam derived from the root word salam which literally means peace. Quran states "those who believe and whose hearts find comfort in the remembrance of Allah. Surely in the remembrance of Allah do hearts find comfort."[24] and stated "O believers! When you are told to make room in gatherings, then do so. Allah will make room for you ˹in His grace˺. And if you are told to rise, then do so. Allah will elevate those of you who are faithful, and ˹raise˺ those gifted with knowledge in rank. And Allah is All-Aware of what you do."[25] Judaism The Judaic tradition associates God with peace, as evidenced by various principles and laws in Judaism. Shalom, the biblical and modern Hebrew word for peace, is one of the names for God according to the Judaic law and tradition. For instance, in traditional Jewish law, individuals are prohibited from saying "Shalom" when they are in the bathroom as there is a prohibition on uttering any of God's names in the bathroom, out of respect for the divine name. Jewish liturgy and prayer is replete with prayers asking God to establish peace in the world. The Shmoneh Esreh, a key prayer in Judaism that is recited three times each day, concludes with a blessing for peace. The last blessing of the Shmoneh Esreh, also known as the Amida ("standing" as the prayer is said while standing), is focused on peace, beginning and ending with supplications for peace and blessings. Peace is central to Judaism's core principle of Moshaich ("messiah") which connotes a time of universal peace and abundance, a time where weapons will be turned into plowshares and lions will sleep with lambs. As it is written in the Book of Isaiah: They shall beat their swords into plowshares and their spears into pruning hooks; nation will not lift sword against nation and they will no longer study warfare. — Isaiah 2:4 The wolf will live with the lamb, the leopard will lie down with the goat, the calf and the lion and the yearling together; and a little child will lead them. The cow will feed with the bear, their young will lie down together, and the lion will eat straw like the ox. The infant will play near the hole of the cobra, and the young child put his hand into the viper's nest. They will neither harm nor destroy on all my holy mountain, for the earth will be full of the knowledge of the Lord as the waters cover the sea. — Isaiah 11:6–9 This last metaphor from Tanakh (Hebrew bible) symbolizes the peace by which a longed-for messianic age will be characterized, a peace in which natural enemies, the strong and the weak, predator and prey, will live in harmony. Jews pray for the messianic age of peace every day in the Shmoneh Esreh, in addition to faith in the coming of the messianic age constituting one of the thirteen core principles of faith in Judaism, according to Maimonides.[citation needed] Ideological beliefs Pacifism Main article: Pacifism A peace sign, which is widely associated with pacifism Pacifism is the categorical opposition to the behaviors of war or violence as a means of settling disputes or of gaining advantage. Pacifism covers a spectrum of views ranging from the belief that international disputes can and should all be resolved via peaceful behaviors; to calls for the abolition of various organizations which tend to institutionalize aggressive behaviors, such as the military, or arms manufacturers; to opposition to any organization of society that might rely in any way upon governmental force. Groups that sometimes oppose the governmental use of force include anarchists and libertarians. Absolute pacifism opposes violent behavior under all circumstance, including defense of self and others. Pacifism may be based on moral principles (a deontological view) or pragmatism (a consequentialist view). Principled pacifism holds that all forms of violent behavior are inappropriate responses to conflict, and are morally wrong. Pragmatic pacifism holds that the costs of war and inter-personal violence are so substantial that better ways of resolving disputes must be found. Inner peace, meditation and prayerfulness Main article: Inner peace Buddhist monk during meditation near Phu Soidao National Park Psychological or inner peace (i.e. peace of mind) refers to a state of being internally or spiritually at peace, with sufficient clarity of knowledge and understanding to remain calm in the face of apparent discord, stress and discomfort. Being internally "at peace" is considered to be a healthy playable mental state, a homeostasis of emotions and to be the opposite of feeling stressful, mentally anxious, or emotionally unstable. Within meditative traditions, the achievement of "peace of mind" is often associated with bliss and happiness. Peace of mind, serenity, and calmness are descriptions of a disposition free from the effects of stress. In some meditative traditions, inner peace is believed to be a state of consciousness or enlightenment that may be cultivated by various types of meditation, prayer, tai chi, yoga, or other various types of mental or physical disciplines. Many such practices refer to this peace as an experience of knowing oneself. An emphasis on finding inner peace is often associated with traditions such as Buddhism, Hinduism, and some traditional Christian contemplative practices such as monasticism,[26] as well as with the New Age movement. Non-Aggression Principle The Non-Aggression Principle asserts that aggression against an individual or an individual's property is always an immoral violation of life, liberty, and property rights.[27] Utilizing deceit instead of consent to achieve ends is also a violation of the Non-Aggression Principle. Therefore, under the framework of this principle, rape, murder, deception, involuntary taxation, government regulation, and other behaviors that initiate aggression against otherwise peaceful individuals are considered violations.[28] This principle is most commonly adhered to by libertarians. A common elevator pitch for this principle is, "Good ideas don't require force."[29] Satyagraha Main article: Satyagraha Martin Luther King Jr., president of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, and Mathew Ahmann, executive director of the National Catholic Conference for Interrracial Justice, at a civil rights march on Washington, D.C. Satyagraha is a philosophy and practice of nonviolent resistance developed by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. He deployed satyagraha techniques in campaigns for Indian independence and also during his earlier struggles in South Africa. The word satyagraha itself was coined through a public contest that Gandhi sponsored through the newspaper he published in South Africa, Indian Opinion, when he realized that neither the common, contemporary Hindu language nor the English language contained a word which fully expressed his own meanings and intentions when he talked about his nonviolent approaches to conflict. According to Gandhi's autobiography, the contest winner was Maganlal Gandhi (presumably no relation), who submitted the entry 'sadagraha', which Gandhi then modified to 'satyagraha'. Etymologically, this Hindic word means 'truth-firmness', and is commonly translated as 'steadfastness in the truth' or 'truth-force'. Satyagraha theory also influenced Martin Luther King Jr., James Bevel, and others during the campaigns they led during the civil rights movement in the United States. The theory of satyagraha sees means and ends as inseparable. Therefore, it is contradictory to try to use violence to obtain peace. As Gandhi wrote: "They say, 'means are, after all, means'. I would say, 'means are, after all, everything'. As the means so the end..."[30] A quote sometimes attributed to Gandhi, but also to A. J. Muste, sums it up: "There is no way to peace; peace is the way".[citation needed] Monuments The following are monuments to peace: Name Location Organization Meaning Image Dirk Willems Peace Garden Steinbach, Manitoba Mennonite Heritage Village A peace garden telling the story of Dirk Willems; a place for reflection and contemplation on what it means to live a life of radical peacemaking. Japanese Garden of Peace Fredericksburg, Texas National Museum of the Pacific War A gift from the people of Japan to the people of the United States, presented to honor Chester W. Nimitz and created as a respite from the intensity of violence, destruction, and loss. Japanese Peace Bell New York City, NY United Nations World peace Fountain of Time Chicago, IL Chicago Park District 100 years of peace between the US and UK Fredensborg Palace Fredensborg, Denmark Frederick IV The peace between Denmark–Norway and Sweden, after Great Northern War which was signed 3 July 1720 on the site of the unfinished palace. International Peace Garden North Dakota, Manitoba non-profit organization Peace between the US and Canada, World peace Peace Arch border between US and Canada, near Surrey, British Columbia. non-profit organization Built to honour the first 100 years of peace between Great Britain and the United States resulting from the signing of the Treaty of Ghent in 1814. Shanti Stupa Pokhara, Nepal Nipponzan-Myōhōji-Daisanga One of eighty peace pagodas in the World. Statue of Europe Brussels European Commission Unity in Peace in Europe Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park Alberta, Montana non-profit organization World Peace Theories See also: Peace and conflict studies § Conceptions of peace Many different theories of "peace" exist in the world of peace studies, which involves the study of de-escalation, conflict transformation, disarmament, and cessation of violence.[31][better source needed] The definition of "peace" can vary with religion, culture, or subject of study. Balance of power Main article: Balance of power (international relations) The classical "realist" position is that the key to promoting order between states, and so of increasing the chances of peace, is the maintenance of a balance of power between states – a situation where no state is so dominant that it can "lay down the law to the rest". Exponents of this view have included Metternich, Bismarck, Hans Morgenthau, and Henry Kissinger. A related approach – more in the tradition of Hugo Grotius than Thomas Hobbes – was articulated by the so-called "English school of international relations theory" such as Martin Wight in his book Power Politics (1946, 1978) and Hedley Bull in The Anarchical Society (1977). As the maintenance of a balance of power could in some circumstances require a willingness to go to war, some critics saw the idea of a balance of power as promoting war rather than promoting peace. This was a radical critique of those supporters of the Allied and Associated Powers who justified entry into World War I on the grounds that it was necessary to preserve the balance of power in Europe from a German bid for hegemony. In the second half of the 20th century, and especially during the cold war, a particular form of balance of power – mutual nuclear deterrence – emerged as a widely held doctrine on the key to peace between the great powers. Critics argued that the development of nuclear stockpiles increased the chances of war rather than peace, and that the "nuclear umbrella" made it "safe" for smaller wars (e.g. the Vietnam war and the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia to end the Prague Spring), so making such wars more likely. Free trade and interdependence Main articles: Doux commerce and Peace economics It was a central tenet of classical liberalism, for example among English liberal thinkers of the late 19th and early 20th century, that free trade promoted peace. For example, the Cambridge economist John Maynard Keynes (1883–1946) said that he was "brought up" on this idea and held it unquestioned until at least the 1920s.[32] During the economic globalization in the decades leading up to World War I, writers such as Norman Angell argued that the growth of economic interdependence between the great powers made war between them futile and therefore unlikely. He made this argument in 1913. A year later Europe's economically interconnected states were embroiled in what would later become known as the First World War.[33] Democratic peace theory Main article: Democratic peace theory The democratic peace theory posits that democracy causes peace because of the accountability, institutions, values, and norms of democratic countries.[34] Territorial peace theory Main article: Territorial peace theory The territorial peace theory posits that peace causes democracy because territorial wars between neighbor countries lead to authoritarian attitudes and disregard for democratic values.[35] This theory is supported by historical studies showing that countries rarely become democratic until after their borders have been settled by territorial peace with neighbor countries.[36] War game Main article: Peace war game The Peace and War Game is an approach in game theory to understand the relationship between peace and conflicts. The iterated game hypotheses was originally used by academic groups and computer simulations to study possible strategies of cooperation and aggression.[37][page needed] As peace makers became richer over time, it became clear that making war had greater costs than initially anticipated. One of the well studied strategies that acquired wealth more rapidly was based on Genghis Khan, i.e. a constant aggressor making war continually to gain resources. This led, in contrast, to the development of what's known as the "provokable nice guy strategy", a peace-maker until attacked, improved upon merely to win by occasional forgiveness even when attacked. By adding the results of all pairwise games for each player, one sees that multiple players gain wealth cooperating with each other while bleeding a constantly aggressive player.[38] Socialism and managed capitalism Socialist, communist, and left-wing liberal writers of the 19th and 20th centuries (e.g., Lenin, J.A. Hobson, John Strachey) argued that capitalism caused war (e.g. through promoting imperial or other economic rivalries that lead to international conflict). This led some to argue that international socialism was the key to peace. However, in response to such writers in the 1930s who argued that capitalism caused war, the economist John Maynard Keynes (1883–1946) argued that managed capitalism could promote peace. This involved international coordination of fiscal/monetary policies, an international monetary system that did not pit the interests of countries against each other, and a high degree of freedom of trade. These ideas underlay Keynes's work during World War II that led to the creation of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank at Bretton Woods in 1944, and later of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (subsequently the World Trade Organization).[39][page needed] International organization and law One of the most influential theories of peace, especially since Woodrow Wilson led the creation of the League of Nations at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, is that peace will be advanced if the intentional anarchy of states is replaced through the growth of international law promoted and enforced through international organizations such as the League of Nations, the United Nations, and other functional international organizations. One of the most important early exponents of this view was Alfred Eckhart Zimmern, for example in his 1936 book The League of Nations and the Rule of Law.[40] Trans-national solidarity Many "idealist" thinkers about international relations – e.g. in the traditions of Kant and Karl Marx – have argued that the key to peace is the growth of some form of solidarity between peoples (or classes of people) spanning the lines of cleavage between nations or states that lead to war.[41][page needed] One version of this is the idea of promoting international understanding between nations through the international mobility of students – an idea most powerfully advanced by Cecil Rhodes in the creation of the Rhodes Scholarships, and his successors such as J. William Fulbright.[42] Another theory is that peace can be developed among countries on the basis of active management of water resources.[43][better source needed] Day World Peace Day, celebrated on 21 September, was founded as a day to recognize, honour and promote peace. It is commemorated each year by United Nations members. Studies, rankings, and periods Peace and conflict studies Main article: Peace and conflict studies Detail from Peace and Prosperity (1896), Elihu Vedder, Library of Congress Thomas Jefferson Building, Washington, D.C. Peace and conflict studies is an academic field which identifies and analyses violent and nonviolent behaviours, as well as the structural mechanisms attending violent and non-violent social conflicts. This is to better understand the processes leading to a more desirable human condition.[44][full citation needed] One variation, Peace studies (irenology), is an interdisciplinary effort aiming at the prevention, de-escalation, and solution of conflicts. This contrasts with war studies (polemology), directed at the efficient attainment of victory in conflicts. Disciplines involved may include political science, geography, economics, psychology, sociology, international relations, history, anthropology, religious studies, and gender studies, as well as a variety of other disciplines. Measurement and ranking Although peace is widely perceived as something intangible, various organizations have been making efforts to quantify and measure it. The Global Peace Index produced by the Institute for Economics and Peace is a known effort to evaluate peacefulness in countries based on 23 indicators of the absence of violence and absence of the fear of violence.[45] The 2015 edition of the Index ranked 163 countries on their internal and external levels of peace.[46] According to the 2017 Global Peace Index, Iceland is the most peaceful country in the world while Syria is the least peaceful one.[47] Fragile States Index (formerly known as the Failed States Index) created by the Fund for Peace focuses on risk for instability or violence in 178 nations. This index measures how fragile a state is by 12 indicators and subindicators that evaluate aspects of politics, social economy, and military facets in countries.[48] The 2015 Failed State Index reports that the most fragile nation is South Sudan, and the least fragile one is Finland.[49] University of Maryland publishes the Peace and Conflict Instability Ledger in order to measure peace. It grades 163 countries with 5 indicators, and pays the most attention to risk of political instability or armed conflict over a three-year period. The most recent ledger shows that the most peaceful country is Slovenia on the contrary Afghanistan is the most conflicted nation. Besides indicated above reports from the Institute for Economics and Peace, Fund for Peace, and University of Maryland, other organizations including George Mason University release indexes that rank countries in terms of peacefulness. Long periods See also: List of periods of regional peace The longest continuing period of peace and neutrality among currently existing states is observed in Sweden since 1814 and in Switzerland, which has had an official policy of neutrality since 1815. This was made possible partly by the periods of relative peace in Europe and the world known as Pax Britannica (1815–1914), Pax Europaea/Pax Americana (since 1950s), and Pax Atomica (also since the 1950s). Other examples of long periods of peace are: the isolationistic Edo period (also known as Tokugawa shogunate) in Japan 1603 to 1868 (265 years) Pax Khazarica in Khazar Khanate (south-east Turkey) about 700–950 CE (250 years) Pax Romana in the Roman empire (for 190 or 206 years). See also Anti-war – Social movement opposed to a nation's status of armed conflict Catholic peace traditions Grey-zone (international relations) – State between peace and war Group on International Perspectives on Governmental Aggression and Peace – Peace organization List of peace activists List of places named Peace List of peace prizes Moral syncretism Nonkilling – Approach to nonviolence Nonviolence – Principle or practice of not causing harm to others Peace education – Interdisciplinary approach to pedagogy of violent conflict and social injustice Peace in Islamic philosophy – Concept in Islam Peace Journalism – style and theory of reporting that aims to treat stories about war and conflict with balance in contrast to war journalism Peace makers – individuals who engage in peacemaking Peace One Day – Non-profit organization Peace Palace – International law administrative building in The Hague, Netherlands Peace symbol – Symbols to promote peace Perpetual peace – Book-length essay by Prussian philosopher Immanuel Kant Prayer for Peace Structural violence – Form of violence Sulh Turn the other cheek – Phrase from the Sermon on the Mount in Christian doctrine War resister – Person who resists war References  "UN Logo and Flag". United Nations. Archived from the original on 26 December 2020. Retrieved 10 December 2020. "International Day of Peace 2020 Poster" (PDF). UN.org. United Nations. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2020. Retrieved 10 December 2020.  Galtung, Johan (31 July 1996). Peace by Peaceful Means: Peace and Conflict, Development and Civilization (1st ed.). Los Angeles: SAGE Publications Ltd. ISBN 978-0-8039-7511-8.  "peace". Online Etymology Dictionary. Archived from the original on 14 December 2013.  Benner, Jeff. "Ancient Hebrew Word Meanings: Peace ~ shalom". Ancient Hebrew Research centre. Archived from the original on 26 April 2014.  "Peace Sign". Inner Peace Zone. 28 August 2021. Archived from the original on 20 September 2021. Retrieved 17 December 2021.  Boederman, John, ed. (1997). The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press. p. 832.[volume & issue needed]  Nilsson, Martin P. (1983). Mycenaean Origin of Greek Mythology. Univ. of California Press. p. 48.  Dowler, Amelia. "Gold coin of Croesus". A History of the World. Archived from the original on 22 January 2010. Retrieved 12 March 2019.  Šmihula, Daniel (2013). The Use of Force in International Relations. VEDA, Publishing House of the Slovak Academy of Sciences. p. 129. ISBN 978-80-224-1341-1.  "The Role and Responsibilities of the Police" (PDF). Policy Studies Institute. p. xii. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 August 2017. Retrieved 22 December 2009.  Lioe, Kim Eduard (3 December 2010). Armed Forces in Law Enforcement Operations? – The German and European Perspective (1989 ed.). Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 52–57. ISBN 978-3-642-15433-1.  Romm, Joseph J. (1993). Defining national security: the nonmilitary aspects. Pew Project on America's Task in a Changed World (Pew Project Series). Council on Foreign Relations. p. 122. ISBN 978-0-87609-135-7. Retrieved 22 September 2010.  Rogers, P (2010). Losing control : global security in the twenty-first century (3rd ed.). London: Pluto Press. ISBN 9780745329376. OCLC 658007519.  "Excerpt from the Will of Alfred Nobel". Nobel Foundation. Archived from the original on 26 October 2007. Retrieved 31 March 2008.  "To 'render war impossible': the Rhodes Scholarships, educational relations between countries, and peace" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 June 2013. Retrieved 9 June 2013.  Cecil Rhodes's goal of Scholarships promoting peace highlighted – The Rhodes Scholarships Archived 22 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Various materials on peace by Warden of the Rhodes House Donald Markwell in Markwell, "Instincts to Lead": On Leadership, Peace, and Education. Connor Court, 2013.  E.g., Donald Markwell, John Maynard Keynes and International Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.  http://www.politics.ox.ac.uk/materials/news/Fulbright_18May12_Arndt.pdf Archived 22 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine, "Honouring J. William Fulbright - the Rhodes Scholarships". Archived from the original on 22 September 2013. Retrieved 26 September 2012.  See, e.g., "The Rhodes Scholarships of China" in Donald Markwell, "Instincts to Lead": On Leadership, Peace, and Education, Connor Court, 2013.  Benner, Jeff. "Ancient Hebrew Word Meanings: Messiah ~ meshi'ahh". Ancient Hebrew Research Center. Archived from the original on 26 April 2014.  "For a child has been born for us, a son given to us; authority rests upon his shoulders; and he is named Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace." [New Revised Standard Version]  Luke 1:76–79  Beaman, Jay; Pipkin, Brian K. (2013). Pentecostal and Holiness Statements on War and Peace. Wipf and Stock Publishers. pp. 98–99. ISBN 9781610979085. "Article 22. Peace, Justice, and Nonresistance". Mennonite Church USA. Archived from the original on 4 June 2021. Retrieved 4 June 2021.  Quran 13:28  Quran 58:11  McGinn, Bernard (2006). Essential Writings of Christian Mysticism. p. 163.  Richman, Sheldon (29 March 2015). "For Libertarians, There Is Only One Fundamental Right". Reason. Archived from the original on 8 March 2022. Retrieved 24 February 2022. Vance, Laurence M. (1 October 2015). "The Morality of Libertarianism". The Future of Freedom Foundation. Archived from the original on 24 July 2023. Retrieved 24 July 2023.  Block, Walter. "The Non-Aggression Axiom of Libertarianism". Lew Rockwell. Archived from the original on 24 July 2023. Retrieved 22 March 2016.  Popik, Barry (4 July 2021). ""Good ideas don't require force"". The Big Apple. Archived from the original on 8 March 2022. Retrieved 24 February 2022.  Prabhu, R.K.; Rao, U.R., eds. (1967), "The Gospel Of Sarvodaya", The Mind of Mahatma Gandhi (Revised ed.), Ahemadabad, India, archived from the original on 27 September 2011  "Peace Studies Program". Cornell University. Archived from the original on 22 October 2007.  Quoted from Donald Markwell, John Maynard Keynes and International Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006, chapter 2.  "NATO Review - the end of the "Great Illusion": Norman Angell and the founding of NATO". 14 January 2019. Archived from the original on 10 November 2019. Retrieved 10 November 2019.  Hegre, Håvard (2014). "Democracy and armed conflict". Journal of Peace Research. 51 (2): 159–172. doi:10.1177/0022343313512852. S2CID 146428562.  Gibler, Douglas M.; Hutchison, Marc L.; Miller, Steven V. (2012). "Individual identity attachments and international conflict: The importance of territorial threat". Comparative Political Studies. 45 (12): 1655–1683. doi:10.1177/0010414012463899. S2CID 154788507. Hutchison, Marc L.; Gibler, Douglas M. (2007). "Political tolerance and territorial threat: A cross-national study". The Journal of Politics. 69 (1): 128–142. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2508.2007.00499.x. S2CID 154653996.  Gibler, Douglas M.; Owsiak, Andrew (2017). "Democracy and the Settlement of International Borders, 1919-2001". Journal of Conflict Resolution. 62 (9): 1847–1875. doi:10.1177/0022002717708599. S2CID 158036471. Owsiak, Andrew P.; Vasquez, John A. (2021). "Peaceful dyads: A territorial perspective". International Interactions. 47 (6): 1040–1068. doi:10.1080/03050629.2021.1962859. S2CID 239103213.  Shy, Oz (1996). Industrial Organization: Theory and Applications. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press.  Miller, Nicholas R. (1985). "Nice Strategies Finish First: A Review of The Evolution of Cooperation". Politics and the Life Sciences. Association for Politics and the Life Sciences. 4 (1): 86–91. doi:10.1017/S0730938400020852. JSTOR 4235437. S2CID 151520743.  Markwell, Donald (2006). John Maynard Keynes and International Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace. Oxford: Oxford University Press.  Zimmern, Alfred Eckhard (1936). The League of Nations and the Rule of Law. Macmillan.  Hinsley, F.H. (1962). Power and the Pursuit of Peace. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.  Discussed above. See, e.g., Markwell, Donald (2013). "Instincts to Lead": On Leadership, Peace, and Education. Australia: Connor Court Publishing.  "Publications – Strategic Foresight Group, Think Tank, Global Policy, Global affairs research, Water Conflict studies, global policy strategies, strategic policy group, global future studies". strategicforesight.com. Archived from the original on 1 November 2016. Retrieved 2 November 2016.  Dugan, 1989: 74  "Vision of Humanity". visionofhumanity.org. Archived from the original on 22 February 2011. Retrieved 15 December 2013.  Jethro Mullen (25 June 2015). "Study: Iceland is the most peaceful nation in the world". CNN.com. Archived from the original on 7 August 2015. Retrieved 6 August 2015.  Edmond, Charlotte (8 June 2017). "These are the most peaceful countries in the world". World Economic Forum. Archived from the original on 15 July 2017. Retrieved 14 July 2017.  "Fragile States 2014". foreignpolicy.com. Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 17 March 2017. Retrieved 10 March 2017.  Zeitvogel, Karin (19 June 2015). "South Sudan Tops List of World's Fragile States – Again". VOA. Archived from the original on 13 August 2015. Retrieved 6 August 2015. Further reading Sir Norman Angell. The Great Illusion. 1909 Raymond Aron, Peace and War. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1966 Hedley Bull. The Anarchical Society. Macmillan, 1977 Sir Herbert Butterfield. Christianity, Diplomacy and War. 1952 Martin Ceadel. Pacifism in Britain, 1914–1945: The Defining of a Faith. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980 Martin Ceadel. Semi-Detached Idealists: The British Peace Movement and International Relations, 1854–1945. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. Martin Ceadel. The Origins of War Prevention: The British Peace Movement and International Relations, 1730–1854. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996 Martin Ceadel. Thinking about Peace and War. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987 Inis L. Claude, Jr. Swords into Ploughshares: The Problems and Progress of International Organization. 1971 Michael W. Doyle. Ways of War and Peace: Realism, Liberalism, and Socialism. W.W. Norton, 1997 Sir Harry Hinsley. Power and the Pursuit of Peace. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1962 Andrew Hurrell. On Global Order. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008 Immanuel Kant. Perpetual Peace. 1795 Martin Luther King Jr.. Letter from Birmingham Jail Donald Markwell. John Maynard Keynes and International Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. Donald Markwell. "Instincts to Lead": On Leadership, Peace, and Education. Connor Court, 2013 Hans Morgenthau. Politics Among Nations. 1948 Laure Paquette. The Path to Peace Steven Pinker. The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined. Viking, 2011 Sir Alfred Eckhard Zimmern. The League of Nations and the Rule of Law. Macmillan, 1936 Kenneth Waltz. Man, the State and War. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978 Michael Walzer. Just and Unjust War. Basic Books, 1977 Jeni Whalan. How Peace Operations Work. Oxford University Press, 2013 Martin Wight. Power Politics. 1946 (2nd edition, 1978) "Pennsylvania, A History of the Commonwealth," esp. pg. 109, edited by Randall M. Miller and William Pencak, The Pennsylvania State University Press, 2002 Peaceful Societies, Alternatives to Violence and War Archived 12 April 2022 at the Wayback Machine Short profiles on 25 peaceful societies. Prefaces to Peace: a Symposium [i.e. anthology], Consisting of [works by] Wendell L. Willkie, Herbert Hoover and Hugh Gibson, Henry A. Wallace, [and] Sumner Welles. "Cooperatively published by Simon and Schuster; Doubleday, Doran, and Co.; Reynal & Hitchcock; [and] Columbia University Press", [194-]. xii, 437 p. External links Peace at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs Research Guide on Peace by the United Nations Library at Geneva Peace Monuments Around the World Peace at Curlie Working Group on Peace and Development (FriEnt) Answers to: "How do we achieve world peace?" vte Anti-war and peace movement Peace advocates Anti-nuclear organizationsAnti-war movementAnti-war organizationsCoalition of Women for PeaceCode PinkConscientious objectorsCountercultureCulture of PeaceGreenham Common Women's Peace CampList of peace activistsPeace and conflict studiesPeace campPeace churchesPeace commissionPeace conferencePeace congressPeace educationPeace movementPeace psychologyPeace treatyPeaceworkerThe Women's Peace CrusadeWar resistersWomen's International League for Peace and Freedom Ideologies AhimsaAnarchism Anarcho-pacifismAnarcho-punksChristian anarchismAnti-imperialismAnti-nuclear movementAntimilitarismAppeasementDirect actionFinvenkismoHippieIsolationismNon-interventionismNonkillingNonviolencePacificismPacifismPeaceSatyagrahaSoviet influence on the peace movementTestimony of peaceWorld peace Media and cultural ArtBooksConcert Yutel for PeaceDances of Universal PeaceFestival for PeaceFilmsImagine Piano Peace ProjectInternational Day of Non-ViolenceInternational Day of PeaceDialogue Among CivilizationsList of peace prizesList of places named PeaceMonuments and memorialsNobel Peace Prize ConcertMuseumsPeace & Love (festival)Peace journalism Peace NewsPeace One DayPlaysPromoting Enduring PeaceShow of Peace ConcertSongsSymbolsUniversity for PeaceWorld Peace Bell Association Japanese Peace BellWomen in Black Slogans and tactics Bed-InCentral Park be-insDraft evasionDie-inFlower powerHuman Be-In"Make love, not war"Peace walk"Soldiers are murderers"Teach-in"The whole world is watching"War tax resisters Opposition to specific wars or their aspects War of 1812American Civil WarSecond Boer WarWorld War IWorld War IIVietnam War list of protestsWar on TerrorIraq War CriticismProtestsAfghanistan WarMilitary action in IranSri Lankan Civil War2011 intervention in LibyaAnti-war protests in Russia (2014)2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine in Russiain Russian Far EastLandminesMilitary taxationNuclear armament Countries CanadaGermanyIsraelNetherlandsSpainSudanUnited KingdomUnited StatesPeacebuilding in Jammu and Kashmir Category vte International relations Organizations Present BRICSCollective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO)International Criminal Court (ICC)Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO)United Nations (UN) Past League of NationsWarsaw Pact History 1648–18141814–19191919–1939Diplomatic history of World War IICold WarInternational relations since 1989 Concepts Alliance EntenteCoalitionAppeasementCollective securityColonialismGrey-zoneHegemonyIdealismInternational communityInternationalismLiberal institutionalismNon-state actorImperialismPeacePowerSovereigntySuzeraintyTreatyWar Theory ConstructivismLiberalismMarxist international relations theoryPeace theoriesRealism Related fields DiplomacyGeopoliticsInternational law vte Social and political philosophy Ancient AristotleAugustineChanakyaCiceroConfuciusHan FeiLactantiusLaoziMenciusMoziOrigenPhiloPlatoPlutarchPolybiusShangSun TzuTertullianThucydidesValluvarXenophonXunzi Medieval AlpharabiusAquinasAvempaceAverroesBaldusBartolusBruniDanteGelasiusal-GhazaliGilesGratianGregoryIbn KhaldunJohn of SalisburyLatiniMaimonidesMarsiliusMuhammadNizam al-MulkOckhamPhotiosPlethonIbn TufaylWang Early modern BezaBoétieBodinBossuetBuchananCalvinCampanellaErasmusFilmerGrotiusGuicciardiniHarringtonHayashiHobbesJamesLeibnizLockeLutherMachiavelliMalebrancheMiltonMontaigneMoreMüntzerNaudéPufendorfSidneySpinozaSuárez 18th–19th-century BakuninBastiatBeccariaBenthamBlanquiBolingbrokeBonaldBurkeCarlyleComteCondorcetConstantCortésEmersonEngelsFichteFourierFranklinGodwinHallerHamannHegelHelvétiusHerderHumeJeffersonKant political philosophyKierkegaardLe BonLe PlayMadisonMaistreMarxMazziniMillMontesquieuNietzscheNovalisOwenPaineRenanRousseauRoyceSadeSaint-SimonSchillerSmithSpencerSpoonerde StaëlStirnerTaineThoreauTocquevilleTuckerVicoVivekanandaVoltaireWarren 20th–21st-century AdornoAgambenAmbedkarArendtAronBadiouBaudrillardBaumanBenoistBerlinBernsteinBurnhamButlerCamusChomskyde BeauvoirDebordDeleuzeDeweyDmowskiDu BoisDuginDurkheimDworkinEvolaFoucaultFrommFukuyamaGandhiGehlenGentileGramsciGuénonHabermasHayekHeideggerHoppeHuntingtonIrigarayKautskyKirkKołakowskiKropotkinLaclauLandLeninLuxemburgMacIntyreMansfieldMaoMarcuseMaritainMaurrasMichelsMisesMoscaMouffeNegriNiebuhrNozickNursîOakeshottOrtegaParetoPolanyiPopperQutbRadhakrishnanRandRawlsRöpkeRothbardRussellSantayanaSartreSchmittScrutonSearleShariatiSimmelSkinnerSombartSorelSpannSpenglerStraussSunTaylorVoegelinWalzerWeberWeilŽižek Social theories AnarchismAuthoritarianismCollectivismChristian theoriesCommunismCommunitarianismConflict theoriesConfucianism NeoConsensus theoryConservatismContractualismCosmopolitanismCulturalismElite theoryFascismFeminist theoriesGandhismHindu nationalism (Hindutva)IndividualismIslamic theories IslamismLegalismLiberalismLibertarianismMohismMonarchismNationalismPopulismRepublicanismSocial constructionismSocial constructivismSocial DarwinismSocial determinismSocialismUtilitarianism Related articles Critique of political economyJurisprudencePhilosophy and economicsPhilosophy of educationPhilosophy of historyPhilosophy of lawPhilosophy of social sciencePolitical ethicsIndex Category vte Virtues About virtues EndowmentMoral characterNicomachean EthicsPositive psychologyTrait theoryVirtue ethics Virtue families Bodhipakkhiyā dhammāBrahmavihārāsCardinal virtuesCatalogue of Vices and VirtuesEpistemic virtuesFive virtuesFour Cardinal Principles and Eight VirtuesNine Noble VirtuesPāramīsPrussian virtuesScout LawSeven virtuesTeachings of the Seven GrandfathersTheological virtuesThree TreasuresValues in Action Inventory of StrengthsYamas Individual virtues AccountabilityAlertnessAltruismAuthenticityCalmnessCharismaCharityChastityChivalryCleanlinessCompassionConscientiousnessCourage CivilMoralCourtesyDiligenceDiscernmentDisciplineDutyEmpathyEnduranceEquanimityEtiquetteFaithFaithfulnessFidelityForesightForgivenessFrugalityGenerosityGloryGood faithGratitudeHeroismHonestyHonourHopeHospitalityHumanityHumilityImpartialityInnocenceInsightIntegrityIntelligence EmotionalSocialJudgementJusticeKindnessLoveLoyaltyMagnanimityMagnificenceMeeknessMercyModerationModestyNonattachmentPatiencePatriotismPerspicacityPhilanthropyPiety FilialPityPolitenessPrudencePunctualityReligionRenunciationResilienceRespectReverenceRighteous indignationRighteousnessSelf-controlSelf-cultivationSelf-transcendenceSimplicitySinceritySolidaritySportsmanshipSympathyTasteTemperanceTranquillityTrustWisdomWitWorkmanship Chinese DeJingLiRenYi Greek AgapeAreteAtaraxiaEutrapeliaPhilotimoPhronesisSophiaSophrosyne Indian AdhiṭṭhānaAhimsaAkrodhaAparigrahaĀrjavaAsteyaBrahmacharyaDānaDhṛtiHrīKaruṇāKshamaKshantiMettāMuditāPrajñāSatyaShauchaSevāŚraddhā/SaddhāUpekṣāVīrya Latin AuctoritasCaritasDecorumDignitasFidesGravitasHumanitasPietasVirtus Other GanbaruGiriSadaqahSenySisuVirtù vte War Peace (list)Conflicts (list)War concept (lists)Civil wars (list)Attacks (list)Terrorism (list)Warfare (list)Battles (list)Wars (list)List of ongoing armed conflicts Authority control databases: National Edit this at Wikidata GermanyJapanCzech RepublicSweden Categories: PeaceEthical principlesFruit of the Holy SpiritNonviolencePacifismPolitical conceptsSocial conceptsVirtue Doves as symbols     Article     Talk     Read     Edit     View history Tools From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sorry to interrupt, but our fundraiser won't last long This Tuesday, we ask you to join the 2% of readers who give. If everyone reading this right now gave just £2, we'd hit our goal in a couple of hours. £2 is all we ask. Give £2 28 November: Wikipedia is still not on the market. Please don't skip this 1-minute read. We're sorry to interrupt, but our fundraiser won't last long. This Tuesday, 28 November, our nonprofit asks for your support. Wikipedia is free and doesn't rely on ads. Just 2% of our readers donate, so if Wikipedia has given you £2 worth of knowledge, please give. Any contribution helps, whether it's £2 or £25. Wikimedia Foundation Logo Proud host of Wikipedia and its sister sites White doves at the Blue Mosque, Mazar-i-Sharif Doves, typically domestic pigeons white in plumage, are used in many settings as symbols of peace, freedom, or love. Doves appear in the symbolism of Judaism, Christianity, Islam and paganism, and of both military and pacifist groups. Mythology Early fifth-century BC statue of Aphrodite from Cyprus, showing her wearing a cylinder crown and holding a dove In ancient Mesopotamia, doves were prominent animal symbols of Inanna-Ishtar, the Goddess of Love, Sexuality, and War.[1][2] Doves are shown on cultic objects associated with Inanna as early as the beginning of the third millennium BC.[1] Lead dove figurines were discovered in the temple of Ishtar at Aššur, dating to the thirteenth century BC,[1] and a painted fresco from Mari, Syria shows a giant dove emerging from a palm tree in the temple of Ishtar,[2] indicating that the goddess herself was sometimes believed to take the form of a dove.[2] In the ancient Levant, doves were used as symbols for the Canaanite mother goddess Asherah.[1][2][3] The ancient Greek word for "dove" was peristerá,[1][2] which may be derived from the Semitic phrase peraḥ Ištar, meaning "bird of Ishtar".[1] In classical antiquity, doves were sacred to the Greek goddess Aphrodite,[4][5][1][2] who absorbed this association with doves from Inanna-Ishtar.[2] Aphrodite frequently appears with doves in ancient Greek pottery.[4] The temple of Aphrodite Pandemos on the southwest slope of the Athenian Acropolis was decorated with relief sculptures of doves with knotted fillets in their beaks[4] and votive offerings of small, white, marble doves were discovered in the temple of Aphrodite at Daphni.[4] During Aphrodite's main festival, the Aphrodisia, her altars would be purified with the blood of a sacrificed dove.[6] Aphrodite's associations with doves influenced the Roman goddesses Venus and Fortuna, causing them to become associated with doves as well.[3] In the Japanese mythology, doves are Hachiman's familiar spirit. Hachiman is the syncretic divinity of archery and war incorporating elements from both Shinto and Buddhism. Judaism J. E. Millais: The Return of the Dove to the Ark (1851) According to the biblical story (Genesis 8:11), a dove was released by Noah after the Flood in order to find land; it came back carrying a freshly plucked olive leaf (Hebrew: עלה זית alay zayit),[7] a sign of life after the Flood and of God's bringing Noah, his family and the animals to land. Rabbinic literature interpreted the olive leaf as "the young shoots of the Land of Israel"[8] or the dove's preference for bitter food in God's service, rather than sweet food in the service of men.[9][10][11] The Talmud compares the spirit of God hovering over the waters to a dove that hovers over her young.[12][13][14] In post-biblical Judaism, souls are envisioned as bird-like (Bahir 119), a concept that may be derived from the Biblical notion that dead spirits "chirp" (Isa. 29:4). The Guf, or Treasury of Souls, is sometimes described as a columbarium, a dove cote. This connects it to a related legend: the "Palace of the Bird's Nest", the dwelling place of the Messiah's soul until his advent (Zohar II: 8a–9a). The Vilna Gaon explicitly declares that a dove is a symbol of the human soul (Commentary to Jonah, 1). The dove is also a symbol of the people Israel (Song of Songs Rabbah 2:14), an image frequently repeated in Midrash. Christianity See also: Sign of the Dove and Christian symbolism § Dove Dove with an olive branch, Catacombs of Domitilla, Rome The symbolism of the dove in Christianity is first found in the Old Testament Book of Genesis in the story of Noah's Ark, "And the dove came in to him at eventide; and, lo, in her mouth an olive-leaf plucked off: so Noah knew that the waters were abated from off the earth". Genesis 8:11 And, also, in the New Testament Gospels of Matthew and Luke, both passages describe after the baptism of Jesus, respectively, as follows, "And Jesus when he was baptized, went up straightway from the water: and lo, the heavens were opened unto him, and he saw the Spirit of God descending as a dove, and coming upon him". Matthew 3:16 and, "And the Holy Spirit descended on him in bodily form like a dove. And a voice came from heaven: "You are my Son, whom I love; with you I am well pleased". Luke 3:22 The Holy Spirit descending on Jesus and appearing in the bodily form of a dove is mentioned in the other two Gospels as well (see Mark 1:10 and John 1:32). White dove with olive branch pictured in the coat of arms of the Diocese of Tampere The use of a dove and olive branch as a symbol of peace originated with the early Christians, who portrayed the act of baptism accompanied by a dove holding an olive branch in its beak and also used the image on their sepulchres.[15][16] Christians derived the symbol of the dove and olive branch from Greek thought, including its use of the symbol of the olive branch,[17] and the story of Noah and the Flood. Although Jews never used the dove as a symbol of peace, it acquired that meaning among early Christians, confirmed by St Augustine of Hippo in his book On Christian Doctrine and became well established.[18] In Christian Iconography, a dove also symbolizes the Holy Spirit, in reference to Matthew 3:16 and Luke 3:22 where the Holy Spirit is compared to a dove at the Baptism of Jesus.[19][20] The early Christians in Rome incorporated into their funerary art the image of a dove carrying an olive branch, often accompanied by the word "Peace". It seems that they derived this image from the simile in the Gospels, combining it with the symbol of the olive branch, which had been used to represent peace by the Greeks and Romans. The dove and olive branch also appeared in Christian images of Noah's ark. The fourth century Vulgate translated the Hebrew alay zayit (leaf of olive) in Genesis 8:11 as Latin ramum olivae (branch of olive). By the fifth century, Augustine of Hippo wrote in On Christian Doctrine that "perpetual peace is indicated by the olive branch (oleae ramusculo) which the dove brought with it when it returned to the ark". Baptism of Christ, by Francesca, 1449 In the earliest Christian art, the dove represented the peace of the soul rather than civil peace, but from the third century it began to appear in depictions of conflict in the Old Testament, such as Noah and the Ark, and in the Apocrypha, such as Daniel and the lions, the three young men in the furnace, and Susannah and the Elders.[21][22] Before the Peace of Constantine (313 AD), in which Rome ceased its persecution of Christians following Constantine's conversion, Noah was normally shown in an attitude of prayer, a dove with an olive branch flying toward him or alighting on his outstretched hand. According to Graydon Snyder, "The Noah story afforded the early Christian community an opportunity to express piety and peace in a vessel that withstood the threatening environment" of Roman persecution.[21] According to Ludwig Budde and Pierre Prigent, the dove referred to the descending of the Holy Spirit rather than the peace associated with Noah. After the Peace of Constantine, when persecution ceased, Noah appeared less frequently in Christian art.[21] Medieval illuminated manuscripts, such as the Holkham Bible, showed the dove returning to Noah with a branch.[23] Wycliffe's Bible, which translated the Vulgate into English in the 14th century, uses "a braunche of olyue tre with greene leeuys" ("a branch of olive tree with green leaves") in Gen. 8:11.[24] In the Middle Ages, some Jewish illuminated manuscripts also showed Noah's dove with an olive branch, for example, the Golden Haggadah (about 1420).[25][26] Mandaeism In Mandaeism, white doves, known as ba in Mandaic, symbolize the spirit (ruha in Mandaic). Sacrifices of white doves are also performed during some Mandaean rituals such as the Ṭabahata Masiqta.[27] Islam Doves and the pigeon family in general are respected and favoured because they are believed to have assisted the final Prophet of Islam, Muhammad, in distracting his pursuers outside the cave of Thaw'r, in the great Hijra.[28] As the Prophet took refuge within the cave, a pair of pigeons and a spider were sent to settle at the entrance of the cave; the spider creating a web and the pigeons creating a nest that they laid eggs in. Thus, the Prophet's pursuers assumed that, as both animals wouldn't have settled there if there were any disturbances, the Prophet and his companion Abu Bakar couldn't have taken refuge there, sparing them from capture.[28] Peace and pacifism in politics White dove with olive branch, stained glass window in the Denis and Saint Sebastian church in Kruft, Germany Doves are often associated with the concept of peace and pacifism. They often appear in political cartoons, on banners and signs at events promoting peace (such as the Olympic Games, at various anti-war/anti-violence protests, etc.), and in pacifist literature. A person who is a pacifist is sometimes referred to as a dove (similarly, in American politics, a person who advocates the use of military resources as opposed to diplomacy can be referred to as a hawk). Picasso's lithograph, La Colombe (The Dove), a traditional, realistic picture of a pigeon, without an olive branch, was chosen as the emblem for the World Peace Council in Paris in April 1949.[29] At the 1950 World Peace Congress in Sheffield, Picasso said that his father had taught him to paint doves, concluding, "I stand for life against death; I stand for peace against war."[30][31] At the 1952 World Peace Congress in Berlin, Picasso's Dove was depicted in a banner above the stage. Anti-communists had their own take on the peace dove: the group Paix et Liberté distributed posters titled La colombe qui fait BOUM (the dove that goes BOOM), showing the peace dove metamorphosing into a Soviet tank.[32] Royal Air Force Tactical Communications Wing RAF The rock dove, due to its relation to the homing pigeon and thus communications, is the main image in the crest of the Tactical Communications Wing, a body within the Royal Air Force. See also     Nonviolence     Peace symbols References Botterweck, G. Johannes; Ringgren, Helmer (1990). Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Vol. VI. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. pp. 35–36. ISBN 0-8028-2330-0. Lewis, Sian; Llewellyn-Jones, Lloyd (2018). The Culture of Animals in Antiquity: A Sourcebook with Commentaries. New York City, New York and London, England: Routledge. p. 335. ISBN 978-1-315-20160-3. The Enduring Symbolism of Doves, From Ancient Icon to Biblical Mainstay by Dorothy D. Resig BAR Magazine Archived 31 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Bib-arch.org (9 February 2013). Retrieved on 5 March 2013. Cyrino, Monica S. (2010). Aphrodite. Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World. New York City, New York and London, England: Routledge. pp. 120–123. ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6. Tinkle, Theresa (1996). Medieval Venuses and Cupids: Sexuality, Hermeneutics, and English Poetry. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0804725156. Simon, Erika (1983). Festivals of Attica: An Archaeological Companion. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-09184-8. Gen 8:11 Genesis Rabbah, 33:6 "Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 108b". Halakhah.com. Retrieved 21 February 2012. "Eruvin 18b" (PDF). Retrieved 21 February 2012. "Rashi". Tachash.org. Archived from the original on 19 August 2018. Retrieved 21 February 2012. "Talmud, Tractate Moed, Hagiga 15a" (PDF). Retrieved 21 February 2012. "Jewish Encyclopedia". Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved 21 February 2012. Franciscan Fellowship James Elmes, A General and Bibliographical Dictionary of the Fine Arts, London: Thomas Tegg, 1826 "Catholic Encyclopedia, Roman Catacombs: Paintings". Newadvent.org. 1 November 1908. Graydon F. Snyder, "The Interaction of Jews with Non-Jews in Rome", in Karl P. Donfreid and Peter Richardson, Judaism and Christianity in Early Rome, Grand Rapids: Wm B. Ferdman, 1998 Augustine of Hippo, On Christian Doctrine. 1883. ISBN 9781593774943.[permanent dead link] Mt 3:16 "Catholic Encyclopedia, Dove: As an artistic symbol". Newadvent.org. 1 May 1909. Graydon D. Snyder, Ante Pacem: archaeological evidence of church life before Constantine, Macon: Mercer University Press, 2003 "John Dominic Crossan, Inventory of Biblical Scenes on Pre-Constantinian Christian Art". Faculty.maryvillecollege.edu. Archived from the original on 25 March 2012. Retrieved 21 February 2012. "British Library, The Holkham Bible". Bl.uk. 30 November 2003. "Wycliffe Bible, Gen 8:11". Studylight.org. Retrieved 21 February 2012. Narkiss, Bezalel, The Golden Haggadah, London: The British Library, 1997, p. 22 British Library, Online Gallery, Sacred Texts. The Golden Haggadah, p.3, lower left hand panel. Buckley, Jorunn Jacobsen (2002). The Mandaeans: ancient texts and modern people. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515385-5. OCLC 65198443. "The Dawn of Prophethood". Al-Islam.org. 18 October 2012. "Museum of Modern Art". Moma.org. 9 January 1949. Retrieved 13 March 2014. "Tate Gallery". Tate.org.uk. Retrieved 13 March 2014. "BBC Modern Masters". 1 January 1970. Retrieved 13 March 2014.     "Princeton University Library". Infoshare1.princeton.edu. Retrieved 13 March 2014. External links     Media related to Symbolic doves at Wikimedia Commons     vte Pigeons and doves (Columbidae)     Common Domestic Feral Life and behavior     Crop milk Intelligence Olfactory navigation Sarcocystis calchasi Breeds and types     Fancy         Fantail Pouter Trumpeter Flying/Sporting         Roller Tippler Tumbler Homing Utility         Squab Relationship with humans     As food Domestication Dovecote IP over Avian Carriers Fancying         Bird fancier's lung Photography Post Sport         Clay pigeon Racing Shooting Pigeon whistle Release dove Symbols War Organizations     American Racing Pigeon Union National Pigeon Service Royal Pigeon Racing Association         British Homing World Show of the Year Save the Trafalgar Square Pigeons United States Army Pigeon Service Up North Combine Related     Wild pigeon genera Wild pigeon species     Category     vte Heraldry     Authorities Grant of arms History Law of arms Officers of arms         King of Arms herald pursuivant private Types     National         dominion civic Ecclesiastical         papal Burgher Women Attributed Topics     Armiger Augmentation         abatement Alliance         courtesy Blazon Cadency         distinction Canting Field         divisions variations Fraud Marshalling         quartering impalement Achievement     Coat of arms Crowns and coronets Crest Compartment Escutcheon Helmet Mantling         pavilion Motto         slogan Supporter Torse Charges     Attitudes Erasure Fimbriation Lines Ordinaries     Bar Bend Bezant Bordure Canton Chevron (Łękawica) Componée Cross Crozier head Chief Fess Flaunch Goutte Gyron Hamade Inescutcheon Label Lozenge Orle Pale Pall Pile Roundel Saltire Beasts     Bear Boar Bull/ox Dog/hound Camelopard Hind/stag Kangaroo Leopard Lion Wolf Birds     Alerion Black swan Cock Crow Dove Eagle         Szaszor Przepaska Martlet Pelican Other     Bee Dolphin Ged Crapaudy Emmet Lucy Reremouse Scallop Serpent Wolfsangel Legendary     Allocamelus Alphyn Amphiptere Basilisk Biscione Chollima Cockatrice Dragon Enfield Garuda Griffin/Keythong Harpy Hippocampus Hippogriff Lampago Lindworm Manticore Mermaid Ouroboros Pantheon Panther Pegasus Phoenix Salamander Sea-griffin Sea-lion Tyger Unicorn Winged lion Woodwose Wyvern Yale Plants     Fleur-de-lis Laurel wreath Oak Quatrefoil Rose Shamrock         Trefoil Thistle Turnip Knots     Bourchier Bowen Cavendish/Savoy Dacre Harrington Hastings/Hungerford Heneage Hinckaert Hungerford knot Lacy Ormonde/Wake Savoy Stafford Tristram/Bowen Wake Tinctures     Rule of tincture Tricking Hatching Metals        Argent (white)    Or (gold) Colours        Gules (red)    Sable (black)    Azure (blue)    Vert (green)    Purpure (purple)1 Furs     Ermine         Ermines Erminois Erminites Pean Vair         Potent Stains        Murrey (mulberry)    Sanguine (blood red)    Tenné Rare metals1       Copper   Buff (metal in the United States) Rare colours1        Bleu celeste   Brunâtre (brown)   Buff (color in Canada)   Cendrée   Ochre   Orange   Rose Realistic     Proper Carnation Applications     Bookplate Hatchment Flag         banner of arms Badge Roll of arms         Colony Europe Illyrian Seal         equestrian Tabard Trophy of arms Related     Traditions by country Mon Emblem         socialist Logotype Phaleristics Vexillology Heraldry societies Sigillography     1 Non-traditional, regional, or rarely used (sometimes considered unheraldic) List of oldest heraldry  Heraldry portal         resources Categories:     Columba (genus)SymbolismMetaphors referring to birdsLegendary birdsFictional ColumbidaeComparative mythologyWhite symbolsBirds in religionInanna Israeli–Palestinian peace process Article Talk Read View source View history Tools Page extended-protected From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Part of a series on the Israeli–Palestinian conflict Israeli–Palestinian peace process History Camp David Accords 1978 Madrid Conference 1991 Oslo Accords 1993 / 95 Hebron Protocol 1997 Wye River Memorandum 1998 Sharm El Sheikh Memorandum 1999 Camp David Summit 2000 The Clinton Parameters 2000 Taba Summit 2001 Road Map 2003 Agreement on Movement and Access 2005 Annapolis Conference 2007 Mitchell-led talks 2010–11 Kerry-led talks 2013–14 Primary concerns Final bordersIsraeli settlementsPalestinian enclavesJewish state Palestinian political violence Palestinian refugees Security concerns Status of Jerusalem Zionist political violence Secondary concerns Israeli West Bank barrier Places of worship Fatah–Hamas conflict Water Electricity International brokers The "Quartet" (United NationsUnited States European UnionRussia) Arab League EgyptJordan United KingdomFrance Proposals One-state solution: Isratin Elon Peace Plan Two-state solution: Fahd Plan Allon Plan Arab Peace Initiative Geneva Initiative Lieberman Plan Israeli Peace Initiative Palestinian Prisoners' Document Trump Peace Plan Three-state solution Israeli unilateral plans: Hafrada Disengagement Realignment Projects / groups / NGOs Peace-orientated projects  Israeli–Palestinian economic peace efforts  Valley of Peace  Middle East economic integration  Alliance for Middle East Peace  Peres Center for Peace vte Intermittent discussions are held by various parties and proposals put forward in an attempt to resolve the ongoing Israeli–Palestinian conflict through a peace process.[1] Since the 1970s, there has been a parallel effort made to find terms upon which peace can be agreed to in both the Arab–Israeli conflict and in the Palestinian–Israeli conflict. Some countries have signed peace treaties, such as the Egypt–Israel (1979) and Jordan–Israel (1994) treaties, whereas some have not yet found a mutual basis to do so. William B. Quandt, in the introduction of his book Peace Process, says: Sometime in the mid-1970s the term peace process became widely used to describe the American-led efforts to bring about a negotiated peace between Israel and its neighbors. The phrase stuck, and ever since it has been synonymous with the gradual, step-by-step approach to resolving one of the world's most difficult conflicts. In the years since 1967 the emphasis in Washington has shifted from the spelling out of the ingredients of "peace" to the "process" of getting there. … The United States has provided both a sense of direction and a mechanism. That, at its best, is what the peace process has been about. At worst, it has been little more than a slogan used to mask the marking of time.[2] Since the 2003 road map for peace, the current outline for a Palestinian–Israeli peace agreement has been a two-state solution; however, a number of Israeli and US interpretations of this propose a series of non-contiguous Palestinian enclaves. Views of the peace process Palestinian views on the peace process Main article: Palestinian views on the peace process Palestinians have held diverse views and perceptions of the peace process. A key starting point for understanding these views is an awareness of the differing objectives sought by advocates of the Palestinian cause. 'New Historian' Israeli academic Ilan Pappe says the cause of the conflict from a Palestinian point of view dates back to 1948 with the creation of Israel (rather than Israel's views of 1967 being the crucial point and the return of occupied territories being central to peace negotiations), and that the conflict has been a fight to bring home refugees to a Palestinian state.[3] Therefore, this for some was the ultimate aim of the peace process, and for groups such as Hamas still is. However Slater says that this "maximalist" view of a destruction of Israel in order to regain Palestinian lands, a view held by Arafat and the PLO initially, has steadily moderated from the late 1960s onwards to a preparedness to negotiate and instead seek a two-state solution.[4] The Oslo Accords demonstrated the recognition of this acceptance by the then Palestinian leadership of the state of Israel's right to exist in return for the withdrawal of Israeli forces from the Gaza Strip and West Bank.[5] However, there are recurrent themes prevalent throughout peace process negotiations including a feeling that Israel offers too little and a mistrust of its actions and motives.[3][6] Yet, the demand for a right of return by the Palestinian refugees to Israel has remained a cornerstone of the Palestinian view and has been repeatedly enunciated by Palestinian president Mahmoud Abbas who is leading the Palestinian peace effort.[7] Israeli views on the peace process Main article: Israeli views on the peace process There are several Israeli views of the peace process. The official position of the State of Israel is that peace ought to be negotiated on the basis of giving up some control of the occupied territories in return for a stop to the conflict and violence.[8] Israel's position is that Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas ought to be the negotiating partner in the peace talks, and not Hamas, which has at times engaged with Israel in escalations of the conflict and attacks Israel's civilian population.[9][10] The Oslo Accords and the Camp David 2000 summit negotiations revealed the possibility of a two state system being accepted by Israeli leadership as a possible peace solution. The two-state solution is the consensus position among the majority of Israelis.[11] However, the violence of the second intifada and the political success of Hamas (a group dedicated to Israel's destruction)[12] have convinced many Israelis that peace and negotiation are not possible and that a two-state system is not the answer.[5] Hardliners believe that Israel should annex all Palestinian territory, or at least all minus the Gaza Strip.[5] Israelis view the peace process as hindered and near impossible due to terrorism on the part of Palestinians and do not trust Palestinian leadership to maintain control.[5] In fact, Pedahzur goes as far as to say that suicide terrorism succeeded where peace negotiations failed in encouraging withdrawal by Israelis from cities in the West Bank.[13] A common theme throughout the peace process has been a feeling that the Palestinians give too little in their peace offers. US views on the peace process Total US foreign aid to Israel compared to other countries. 1946-2022.[14] US officials, citizens and lobbying groups hold divergent views on the peace process. All recent US Presidents have maintained a policy that Israel must give up some of the land that it conquered in the 1967 war in order to achieve peace;[15] that the Palestinians must actively prevent terrorism; and that Israel has an unconditional right to exist. Presidents Bill Clinton and George W. Bush publicly supported the creation of a new Palestinian state out of most of the current Palestinian territories, based on the idea of self-determination for the Palestinian people,[16] and President Obama continued that policy.[17] Secretary of State Hillary Clinton thought that peace can only be achieved through direct, bilateral negotiations between Israel and the Palestinians.[18] Obama outlined the pursuit of the two-state solution as American policy for achieving Palestinian aspirations, Israeli security, and a measure of stability in the Middle East.[19] According to the sociologist Mervin Verbit, American Jews are "more right than left" on peace process issues. Verbit found that surveys of American Jews often reflect the view of the poll's sponsors. Often it is the wording of the survey questions that bias the outcome (a headline illustrating this point reads "ADL poll shows higher support for Israel than did survey by dovish J Street"). Using survey data from the American Jewish Committee where findings could not be attributed to wording biases, Verbit found American Jews took a rightward shift following the collapse of the Camp David talks in 2000, and the 9/11 attacks in 2001.[20] Qatar's initiative for peace On October 7, 2023, Israel and Palestine started an extensive armed conflict. Due to its escalation, On October 9, 2023, Qatari mediators made urgent talks to attempt to arrange the release of 36 Palestinian women and children from Israeli prisons in exchange for the release of Israeli women and children held by the militant group that were being detained in Gaza. Positive progress is being made in the ongoing negotiations, which Qatar has been undertaking in collaboration with the United States.[21][22] Major current issues between the two sides See also: History of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict There are numerous issues to resolve before a lasting peace can be reached, including the following: The 1949 Green Line borders Borders and division of the land; Strong emotions relating to the conflict on both sides; Palestinian concerns over Israeli settlements in the West Bank; The status of Jerusalem; Security concerns over terrorism, safe borders, incitements, violence; Right of return of Palestinian refugees living in the Palestinian diaspora. From the Israeli perspective, a key concern is security, and whether the major Palestinian figures and institutions are in fact trying to fight terrorism and promote tolerance and co-existence with Israel. Israeli concerns are based on abundant documentary and empirical evidence of many Palestinian leaders having in fact promoted and supported terrorist groups and activities. Furthermore, there is much concrete evidence of Palestinians having supported and expressed incitement against Israel, its motives, actions, and basic rights as a state. The election of Hamas has provided evidence for this view, with the Hamas charter stating unequivocally that it does not recognize Israel's right to exist.[23] However, there remain some activists on the Palestinian side who claim that there are still some positive signs on the Palestinian side, and that Israel should use these to cultivate some positive interactions with the Palestinians, even in spite of Hamas's basic opposition to the existence of the Jewish State. Since mid-June 2007, Israel has cooperated with Palestinian security forces in the West Bank at unprecedented levels, thanks in part to United States-sponsored training, equipping, and funding of the Palestinian National Security Forces and Presidential Guard.[24] A further concern is whether, as a result of this security argument, Israel will in fact allow the Palestinian community to emerge as a viable and sovereign political unit, a viable and contiguous state. There are also various economic and political restrictions placed on Palestinian people, activities, and institutions which have had a detrimental effect on the Palestinian economy and quality of life.[25] Israel has said repeatedly that these restrictions are necessary due to security concerns, and in order to counteract ongoing efforts which promote terrorism which incite opposition to Israel's existence and rights as a country. The key obstacle therefore remains the Israeli demand for security versus Palestinian claims for rights and statehood.[26] Furthermore, the identification of 'Palestinian' with 'terrorist' can be construed as problematic, and Sayigh argues that this association is used as a rationale for maintaining the status quo, and that only by recognising the status of Jewish immigrants as 'settlers' can we conceptually move forwards.[27] However, it is the case that the Palestinian resort to militancy has made such conceptual clarity difficult to achieve. Israeli West Bank barrier in Bethlehem Nevertheless, there is a range of ulterior motives for Israel's denial of Palestinian statehood. If Palestine were declared a state, then immediately, Israel, by its present occupation of the West Bank will be in breach of the United Nations Charter. Palestine, as a state, could legitimately call upon the inherent right of individual or collective self-defense under Article 51 of the Charter to remove Israel from the occupied territories. Palestine, as a state, would be able to accede to international conventions and bring legal action against Israel on various matters. Palestine could accede to various international human rights instruments, such as the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. It could even join the International Criminal Court and file cases against Israel for war crimes. It would be a tinderbox of a situation that is highly likely to precipitate conflict in the Middle East.[28] There is a lively debate around the shape that a lasting peace settlement would take (see for example the One-state solution and Two-state solution). Authors like Cook have argued that the one-state solution is opposed by Israel because the very nature of Zionism and Jewish nationalism calls for a Jewish majority state, whilst the two-state solution would require the difficult relocation of half a million Jewish settlers living in the West Bank and East Jerusalem.[29] The Palestinian leaders such as Salam Fayyad have rejected calls for a binational state or unilateral declaration of statehood. As of 2010, only a minority of Palestinians and Israelis support the one-state solution.[30] Interest in a one-state solution is growing, however, as the two-state approach fails to accomplish a final agreement.[31][32] Background Peace efforts with confrontation states [icon] This section needs expansion with: Efforts with Egypt, Jordan, Syria post 1973. You can help by adding to it. (September 2014) There were parallel efforts for peace treaties between Israel and other "confrontation states": Egypt, Jordan and Syria after the Six-Day war, and Lebanon afterwards.[33][34] UN resolution 242 was accepted by Israel, Jordan, and Egypt, but rejected by Syria until 1972–1973.[35] In 1970, US Secretary of State William P. Rogers proposed the Rogers Plan, which called for a 90-day cease-fire, a military standstill zone on each side of the Suez Canal, and an effort to reach agreement in the framework of UN Resolution 242. Israel rejected the plan on 10 December 1969, calling it "an attempt to appease [the Arabs] at the expense of Israel." The Soviets dismissed it as "one-sided" and "pro-Israeli." President Nasser rejected it because it was a separate deal with Israel even if Egypt recovered all of Sinai.[36][37] No breakthrough occurred even after President Sadat in 1972 surprised most observers by suddenly expelling Soviet military advisers from Egypt and again signaled to the United States government his willingness to negotiate based on the Rogers plan. Arab–Israeli peace diplomacy and treaties Main article: Arab–Israeli normalization   Recognition of Israel only   Recognition of Israel, with some relations to Palestinian State   Recognition of both Israel and Palestinian State   Recognition of Palestinian State, with some relations to Israel   Recognition of Palestinian State only 1949 Armistice Agreements Allon Plan (1967-80) Rogers Plan (1969) Geneva Conference (1973) Camp David Accords (1978) Egypt–Israel peace treaty (1979) Madrid Conference of 1991 Oslo Accords (1993) Israel–Jordan peace treaty (1994) 2000 Camp David Summit Timeline Part of this section is transcluded from Two-state solution. (edit | history) Madrid (1991–93) Main article: Madrid Conference of 1991 In 1991, Israel and the Arab countries directly involved in the Arab–Israeli conflict came to the Madrid Peace Conference, called by US president George H. W. Bush (with the help of Secretary of State James Baker) after the First Gulf War.[38] The talks continued in Washington, DC, but yielded only few results. Oslo (1993-2001) Yitzhak Rabin, Bill Clinton, and Yasser Arafat at the Oslo Accords signing ceremony on 13 September 1993 Main article: Oslo Accords While the slow moving Madrid talks were taking place, a series of secret meetings between Israeli and Palestinian negotiators were taking place in Oslo, Norway, which resulted in the 1993 Oslo Peace Accords between Palestinians and Israel, a plan discussing the necessary elements and conditions for a future Palestinian state "on the basis of Security Council Resolutions 242 and 338".[39] The agreement, officially titled the Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements (DOP), was signed on the White House lawn on 13 September 1993. Various "transfers of power and responsibilities" in the Gaza Strip and West Bank from Israel to the Palestinians took place in the mid-1990s.[40] The Palestinians achieved self-governance of major cities in the West Bank and the entire Gaza Strip. Israel maintained and continues to maintain a presence in the West Bank for security reasons. In 2013 Israel still had control of 61% of the West Bank, while the Palestinians had control of civic functions for most of the Palestinian population. After the assassination of Yitzhak Rabin in 1995, the peace process eventually ground to a halt. The settlements' population almost doubled in the West Bank. Later suicide bombing attacks from Palestinian militant groups and the subsequent retaliatory actions from the Israeli military made conditions for peace negotiations untenable. 1996–99 agreements Newly elected Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu declared a new policy following the many suicide attacks by Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad since 1993, including a wave of suicide attacks prior to the Israeli elections of May 1996. Netanyahu declared a tit-for-tat policy which he termed "reciprocity," whereby Israel would not engage in the peace process if Arafat continued with what Netanyahu defined as the Palestinian revolving door policy, i.e., incitement and direct or indirect support of terrorism. The Hebron and Wye Agreements were signed during this period, after Israel considered that its conditions were partially met. Protocol Concerning the Redeployment in Hebron, also known as the Hebron Protocol or Hebron Agreement, began 7 January and was concluded from 15 to 17 January 1997 between Israel and the PLO. The agreement dealt with the redeployment of Israeli military forces in Hebron in accordance with the Oslo Accords, security issues and other concerns. The Wye River Memorandum was a political agreement negotiated to implement the Oslo Accords, completed on 23 October 1998. It was signed by Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and PLO Chairman Yasser Arafat. It was negotiated at Wye River, Maryland (at the Wye River Conference Center) and signed at the White House with President Bill Clinton as the official witness. On 17 November 1998, Israel's 120-member parliament, the Knesset, approved the Memorandum by a vote of 75–19. The agreement dealt with further redeployments in the West Bank, security issues and other concerns. Camp David 2000 Summit, Clinton's "Parameters," and the Taba talks Main article: 2000 Camp David Summit In 2000, US President Bill Clinton convened a peace summit between Palestinian President Yasser Arafat and Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak. In May of that year, according to Nathan Thrall, Israel had offered Palestinians 66% of the West Bank, with 17% annexed to Israel, and a further 17% not annexed but under Israeli control, and no compensating swap of Israeli territory.[41] The Israeli prime minister offered the Palestinian leader between 91%[note 1] and 95%[42][43] (sources differ on the exact percentage) of the West Bank and the entire Gaza Strip if 69 Jewish settlements (which comprise 85% of the West Bank's Jewish settlers) be ceded to Israel. East Jerusalem would have fallen for the most part[44] under Israeli sovereignty, with the exception of most suburbs with heavy non-Jewish populations surrounded by areas annexed to Israel.[45] The issue of the Palestinian right of return would be solved through significant monetary reparations.[46] Arafat rejected this offer and did not propose a counter-offer.[47][48][49] No tenable solution was crafted which would satisfy both Israeli and Palestinian demands, even under intense U.S. pressure.[47] Clinton blamed Arafat for the failure of the Camp David Summit.[47][49] In the months following the summit, Clinton appointed former US Senator George J. Mitchell to lead a fact-finding committee that later published the Mitchell Report. Proposed in the fall of 2000 following the collapse of the Camp David talks, The Clinton Parameters included a plan on which the Palestinian State was to include 94-96% of the West Bank, and around 80% of the settlers were to become under Israeli sovereignty, and in exchange for that, Israel would concede some territory (so called 'Territory Exchange' or 'Land Swap') within the Green Line (1967 borders). The swap would consist of 1–3% of Israeli territory, such that the final borders of the West Bank part of the Palestinian state would include 97% of the land of the original borders.[50] At the Taba summit (at Taba) in January 2001 talks continued based on the Clinton Parameters. The Israeli negotiation team presented a new map. The proposition removed the "temporarily Israeli controlled" areas from the West Bank and offered a few thousand more refugees than they offered at Camp David to settle into Israel and hoped that this would be considered "implementation" of United Nations General Assembly Resolution 194.[51][52] The Palestinian side accepted this as a basis for further negotiation. However, Barak did not conduct further negotiations at that time; the talks ended without an agreement and the following month the right-wing Likud party candidate Ariel Sharon was elected Israeli prime minister in February 2001. The Arab peace initiative and the Roadmap (2002/3) Main articles: Arab Peace Initiative, Road map for peace, and Beirut Summit The Beirut summit of Arab government leaders took place in March 2002 under the aegis of the Arab League. The summit concluded by presenting a plan to end the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Israeli Foreign Minister Shimon Peres welcomed it and said, "... the details of every peace plan must be discussed directly between Israel and the Palestinians, and to make this possible, the Palestinian Authority must put an end to terror, the horrifying expression of which we witnessed just last night in Netanya",[53] referring to the Netanya suicide attack perpetrated on the previous evening which the Beirut Summit failed to address. Israel was not prepared to enter negotiations as called for by the Arab League plan on the grounds that it did not wish for "full withdrawal to 1967 borders and the right of return for the Palestinian refugees".[54] President George W. Bush, center, discusses the peace process with Prime Minister Ariel Sharon of Israel, left, and Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas in Aqaba, Jordan, 4 June 2003. In July 2002, the "quartet" of the United States, the European Union, the United Nations, and Russia, outlined the principles of a "road map" for peace, including an independent Palestinian state. The road map was released in April 2003 after the appointment of Mahmoud Abbas (AKA Abu Mazen) as the first-ever Palestinian Authority Prime Minister. Both the US and Israel called for a new Prime Minister position, as both refused to work with Arafat anymore. The plan called for independent actions by Israel and the Palestinian Authority, with disputed issues put off until a rapport can be established. In the first step, the Palestinian Authority must "undertake visible efforts on the ground to arrest, disrupt, and restrain individuals and groups conducting and planning violent attacks on Israelis anywhere" and a "rebuilt and refocused Palestinian Authority security apparatus" must "begin sustained, targeted, and effective operations aimed at confronting all those engaged in terror and dismantlement of terrorist capabilities and infrastructure." Israel was then required to dismantle settlements established after March 2001, freeze all settlement activity, remove its army from Palestinian areas occupied after 28 September 2000, end curfews and ease restrictions on movement of persons and goods. Israeli–Palestinian talks in 2007 and 2008 From December 2006 to mid-September 2008, Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert and President Mahmoud Abbas of the Palestinian Authority met 36 times; there were also lower-level talks. In 2007 Olmert welcomed the Arab League's re-endorsement of the Arab Peace Initiative. In his bid to negotiate a peace accord and establish a Palestinian state, Olmert proposed a plan to the Palestinians.[55] The centerpiece of Olmert's detailed proposal is the suggested permanent border, which would be based on an Israeli withdrawal from most of the West Bank. Olmert proposed annexing at least 6.3% of Palestinian territory, in exchange for 5.8% of Israeli land, with Palestinians receiving alternative land in the Negev, adjacent to the Gaza Strip, as well as territorial link, under Israeli sovereignty, for free passage between Gaza and the West Bank. Israel insisted on retaining an armed presence in the future Palestinian state.[41][56] Under Abbas's offer, more than 60 percent of settlers would stay in place. Olmert, for his part, was presenting a plan in which the most sparsely populated settlements would be evacuated. Olmert and Abbas both acknowledged that reciprocal relations would be necessary, not hermetic separation. They also acknowledged the need to share a single business ecosystem, while cooperating intensively on water, security, bandwidth, banking, tourism and much more. Regarding Jerusalem the leaders agreed that Jewish neighborhoods should remain under Israeli sovereignty, while Arab neighborhoods would revert to Palestinian sovereignty.[55] The Palestinians asked for clarifications of the territorial land swap since they were unable to ascertain what land his percentages affected, since Israeli and Palestinian calculations of the West Bank differ by several hundred square kilometres. For them, in lieu of such clarifications, Olmert's 6.3–6.8% annexation might work out closer to 8.5%, 4 times the 1.9% limit the Palestinians argued a swap should not exceed.[41] The talks ended with both sides claiming the other side dropped follow-up contacts.[41][56] Following the conflict that erupted between the two main Palestinian parties, Fatah and Hamas, Hamas took control of the Gaza Strip, splintering the Palestinian Authority into two polities, each claiming to be the true representatives of the Palestinian people. Fatah controlled the Palestinian National Authority in the West Bank and Hamas governed in Gaza. Hostilities between Gaza and Israel increased.[citation needed] Egypt brokered the 2008 Israel–Hamas ceasefire, which lasted half a year beginning on 19 June 2008 and lasted until 19 December 2008.[57] The collapse of the ceasefire led to the Gaza War on 27 December 2008. 2010 direct talks Main article: 2010–2011 Israeli–Palestinian peace talks See also: 2010 Palestinian militancy campaign In June 2009, reacting to US President Barack Obama's Cairo Address,[41] Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu declared for the first time[58] conditional support for a future Palestinian state[59] but insisted that the Palestinians would need to make reciprocal gestures and accept several principles: recognition of Israel as the nation-state of the Jewish people; demilitarization of a future Palestinian state, along with additional security guarantees, including defensible borders for Israel;[60] Palestinians would also have to accept that Jerusalem would remain the united capital of Israel, and renounce their claim to a right of return. He also claimed that Israeli settlements retain a right to growth and expansion in the West Bank. Palestinians rejected the proposals immediately.[61] In September 2010, the Obama administration pushed to revive the stalled peace process by getting the parties involved to agree to direct talks for the first time in about two years.[62] While U.S. President Barack Obama was the orchestrator of the movement, U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton went through months of cajoling just to get the parties to the table, and helped convince the reluctant Palestinians by getting support for direct talks from Egypt and Jordan.[62][63] The aim of the talks was to forge the framework of a final agreement within one year, although general expectations of a success were fairly low. The talks aimed to put the Israeli–Palestinian conflict to an official end by forming a two-state solution for the Jewish and Palestinian peoples, promoting the idea of everlasting peace and putting an official halt to any further land claims, as well as accepting the rejection of any forceful retribution if violence should reoccur. Hamas and Hezbollah, however threatened violence, especially if either side seemed likely to compromise in order to reach an agreement. As a result, the Israeli government publicly stated that peace couldn't exist even if both sides signed the agreement, due to the stance taken by Hamas and Hezbollah. The US was therefore compelled to re-focus on eliminating the threat posed by the stance of Hamas and Hezbollah as part of the direct talk progress. Israel for its part, was skeptical that a final agreement was reached that the situation would change, as Hamas and Hezbollah would still get support to fuel new violence. In addition, the Israeli government rejected any possible agreement with Palestine as long as it refuses to recognize Israel as a Jewish state. This is in accordance with the principle of the two-state solution, first proposed in the 1980s. The mainstream within the PLO have taken the concept of territorial and diplomatic compromise seriously and have showed serious interest in this.[64] During the 2010 talks, Palestinian Authority President Mahmoud Abbas said that the Palestinians and Israel have agreed on the principle of a land swap, but Israel has yet to confirm. The issue of the ratio of land Israel would give to the Palestinians in exchange for keeping settlement blocs is an issue of dispute, with the Palestinians demanding that the ratio be 1:1, and Israel offering less.[65] In April 2012, Mahmoud Abbas sent a letter to Benjamin Netanyahu reiterating that for peace talks to resume, Israel must stop settlement building in the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and accept the 1967 borders as a basis for a two-state solution.[66][67] In May 2012, Abbas reiterated his readiness to engage with the Israelis if they propose "anything promising or positive".[68] Netanyahu replied to Abbas' April letter less than a week later and, for the first time, officially recognised the right for Palestinians to have their own state, though as before[69] he declared it would have to be demilitarised,[70] and said his new national unity government furnished a new opportunity to renew negotiations and move forward.[71] 2013–14 talks Main article: 2013–2014 Israeli–Palestinian peace talks Direct negotiations between Israel and the Palestinians began on 29 July 2013 following an attempt by United States Secretary of State John Kerry to restart the peace process. Martin Indyk of the Brookings Institution in Washington, D.C. was appointed by the US to oversee the negotiations. Indyk served as U.S. ambassador to Israel and assistant secretary of state for Near East affairs during the Clinton administration.[72] Hamas, the Palestinian government in Gaza, rejected Kerry's announcement, stating that Palestinian president Mahmoud Abbas has no legitimacy to negotiate in the name of the Palestinian people.[73] The negotiations were scheduled to last up to nine months to reach a final status to the Palestinian-Israeli conflict by mid-2014. The Israeli negotiating team was led by veteran negotiator Justice Minister Tzipi Livni, while the Palestinian delegation was led by Saeb Erekat, also a former negotiator. Negotiations started in Washington, DC[74] and were slated to move to the King David Hotel in Jerusalem and finally to Hebron.[75] A deadline was set for establishing a broad outline for an agreement by 29 April 2014. On the expiry of the deadline, negotiations collapsed, with the US Special Envoy Indyk reportedly assigning blame mainly to Israel, while the US State Department insisting no one side was to blame but that "both sides did things that were incredibly unhelpful."[76] Israel reacted angrily to the Fatah–Hamas Gaza Agreement of 23 April 2014 whose main purpose was reconciliation between Fatah and Hamas, the formation of a Palestinian unity government and the holding of new elections.[77] Israel halted peace talks with the Palestinians, saying it "will not negotiate with a Palestinian government backed by Hamas, a terrorist organization that calls for Israel's destruction", and threatened sanctions against the Palestinian Authority,[78][79] including a previously announced Israeli plan to unilaterally deduct Palestinian debts to Israeli companies from the tax revenue Israel collects for the PA.[80] Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu accused Abbas of sabotaging peace efforts. He said that Abbas cannot have peace with both Hamas and Israel and has to choose.[81][82] Abbas said the deal did not contradict their commitment to peace with Israel on the basis of a two-state solution[83] and assured reporters that any unity government would recognize Israel, be non-violent, and bound to previous PLO agreements.[84] Shortly after, Israel began implementing economic sanctions against Palestinians and canceled plans to build housing for Palestinians in Area C of the West Bank.[85] Abbas also threatened to dissolve the PA, leaving Israel fully responsible for both the West Bank and Gaza,[86] a threat that the PA has not put into effect.[87] Notwithstanding Israeli objections and actions, the new Palestinian Unity Government was formed on 2 June 2014.[88] Abbas' 2014 peace plan On 3 September 2014, Abbas presented a new proposal for the peace process to John Kerry.[89][90] The plan called for nine months of direct talks followed by a three-year plan for Israel to withdraw to the 1967 lines, leaving East Jerusalem as Palestine's capital.[91] The resumption of talks was contingent on an Israeli freeze on construction in the West Bank and east Jerusalem,[92] as well as the release of the final batch of prisoners from the previous talks.[93] The first three months of the plan would revolve around the borders and potential land swaps for the 1967 lines. The following six months would focus on issues including refugees, Jerusalem, settlements, security and water.[94] The US administration rejected the initiative, saying it was opposed to any unilateral move that could negatively impact the Israeli–Palestinian peace process.[90] Abbas stated that if Israel rejected the claim he would push for charges against Israel in the International Criminal Court over the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict.[92] Additionally, if rejected, Abbas stated he would turn to the UN Security Council for a unilateral measure for a Palestinian State.[90] On 1 October 2014, Abbas stated he would be presenting his plan to the UNSC within two to three weeks, with an application to the ICC to follow if it failed to pass the UNSC.[95] In December 2014, Jordan submitted the proposal to the UNSC, which failed when voted on later that month.[citation needed] Later that month as previously threatened, Abbas signed the treaty to join the ICC.[96] Israel responded by freezing NIS 500 million (US$127 million) in Palestinian tax revenues,[97] in response to which, the PA banned the sale in the Palestinian territories of products of six major Israeli companies.[98] Trump plan Trump plan map Further information: Trump peace plan Following the inauguration of US President Donald Trump in January 2017, a period of uncertainty regarding a new peace initiative began. In early 2018, some media sources reported the new administration was preparing a new peace initiative for an Israeli-Palestinian deal. The White House unveiled the economic part of the Trump initiative, titled Peace to Prosperity: The Economic Plan, in June 2019,[99] and the political portion of the plan in January 2020. Palestinian leaders boycotted and condemned the Bahrain conference in late June 2019 at which the economic plan was unveiled. In December 2017, Palestinian president Mahmoud Abbas cut ties with the Trump administration after United States recognition of Jerusalem as capital of Israel. The Trump administration further raised Palestinians' ire when it moved the US embassy to Jerusalem in May 2018, and cut hundreds of millions of dollars in annual aid to the Palestinians, citing the PA's refusal to take part in the administration's peace initiative.[100] Munich group In February 2020, on the sidelines of the Munich Security Conference, the foreign ministers of Egypt, France, Germany and Jordan, the Munich Group, together discussed peace efforts.[101] In July, the same quartet issued a statement declaring that "any annexation of Palestinian territories occupied in 1967 would be a violation of international law" and "would have serious consequences for the security and stability of the region and would constitute a major obstacle to efforts aimed at achieving a comprehensive and just peace",. The foreign ministers said they "discussed how to restart a fruitful engagement between the Israeli and the Palestinian side, and offer our support in facilitating a path to negotiations".[102][103] Meeting in Jordan on 24 September the four again called for a resumption of negotiations between the two sides. There will be "no comprehensive and lasting peace without solving the conflict on the basis of the two-state solution", Jordanian Foreign Minister Ayman al-Safadi told reporters following the meeting. The four also praised recent deals establishing ties between Israel and the United Arab Emirates and Bahrain. Egypt's Sameh Shoukry said the deals are an "important development that would lead to more support and interaction in order to reach a comprehensive peace". However Palestinians see the two accords as a betrayal.[104][105] On 11 January 2021, the group met in Cairo to discuss "possible steps to advance the peace process in the Middle East and create an environment conducive to the resumption of dialogue between the Palestinians and the Israelis." A joint statement of the quartet confirmed its intention to work with the incoming administration of President-elect Joe Biden. A further meeting is set to be held in Paris.[106][107] The four met in Paris on 11 March 2021, with United Nations Special Coordinator for the Middle East Peace Process Tor Wennesland and the European Union Special Representative for the Middle East Peace Process, Susanna Terstal. Their statement emphasized the importance of confidence-building measures to promote dialogue, support for the two-state solution and stated that settlement activities violate international law.[108] On 19 February 2021, at the Munich Security Conference, as well as reaffirming support for a two state solution, the group condemned the expansion of Israeli settlements and the ongoing Palestinian displacement in East Jerusalem, in particular in Sheikh Jarrah.[109] On 22 September 2022, the group met with Josep Borrell, High Representative of the European Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, and the United Nations Special Coordinator for the Middle East Peace Process, Tor Wennesland, and in a statement said "with a view to advancing the Middle East Peace Process towards a just, comprehensive and lasting peace on the basis of the two-state solution".[110] Quartet developments Main article: Quartet on the Middle East This article appears to be slanted towards recent events. Please help improve the article. (March 2021) In July 2016, the Quartet reported: The continuing policy of settlement construction and expansion in the West Bank and East Jerusalem, designation of land for exclusive Israeli use, and denial of Palestinian development, including the recent high rate of demolitions, is steadily eroding the viability of the two-state solution. This raises legitimate questions about Israel's long-term intentions, which are compounded by the statements of some Israeli ministers that there should never be a Palestinian state. In fact, the transfer of greater powers and responsibilities to Palestinian civil authority...has effectively been stopped. It was within this context that the United Nations passed Security Council Resolution 2334 in December 2016 in another bid to address the settlement question.[111][112] The report was significantly altered to appease Israel and as well as urging Israel to stop its settlement policy, urged Palestine to end incitement to violence.[113][114] In a speech to the UN General Assembly in September, 2018, Mahmoud Abbas called Donald Trump's policies towards Palestinians an "assault on international law". He said the US is "too biased towards Israel" indicating that others could broker talks and that the US could participate as a member of the Middle East peace Quartet.[115] Abbas reiterated this position at a UN Security Council meeting on 11 February 2020.[116][102] As of 16 September 2020, the UN has not been able to gather the consensus necessary for the Quartet or a group of countries linked to the Quartet to meet.[117][118] On 25 September 2020, at the UN, Abbas called for an international conference early in 2021 to "launch a genuine peace process."[119] On 15 February 2021, the quartet envoys met virtually and agreed to meet on a regular basis to continue their engagement.[120] On 23 March 2021, the Quartet discussed the reviving of "meaningful negotiations" between Israel and the Palestinians who both need "to refrain from unilateral actions that make a two-state solution more difficult to achieve."[121][122] Alternative peace proposals Another approach was taken by a team of negotiators led by former Israeli Justice Minister Yossi Beilin, and former Palestinian Information Minister Yasser Abed Rabbo following two and a half years of secret negotiations. On 1 December 2003, the two parties signed an unofficial suggested plan for peace in Geneva (dubbed the Geneva Accord). In sharp contrast to the road map, it is not a plan for a temporary ceasefire but a comprehensive and detailed solution aiming at all the issues at stake, in particular, Jerusalem, the settlements and the refugee problem.[123] It was met with bitter denunciation by the Israeli government and many Palestinians, with the Palestinian Authority staying non-committal, but it was warmly welcomed by many European governments and some significant elements of the Bush Administration, including Secretary of State Colin Powell. Yet another approach was proposed by a number of parties inside and outside Israel: a "binational solution" whereby Israel would formally annex the Palestinian territories but would make the Palestinian Arabs citizens in a unitary secular state. Championed by Edward Said and New York University professor Tony Judt, the suggestion aroused both interest and condemnation. It was not actually a new idea, dating back as far as the 1920s, but it was given extra prominence by the growing demographic issues raised by a rapidly expanding Arab population in Israel and the territories. Considering the huge political and demographic issues that it would raise, however, it seems an improbable solution to the problem. The Elon Peace Plan is a solution for the Arab-Israeli conflict proposed in 2002 by former minister Binyamin Elon. The plan advocates the formal annexation of West Bank and Gaza by Israel and that Palestinians will become either Jordanian citizens or permanent residents in Israel so long as they remained peaceful and law-abiding residents. All these actions should be done in agreement with Jordan and the Palestinian population. This solution is tied to the demographics of Jordan where it's claimed that Jordan is essentially already the Palestinian state, as it has so many Palestinian refugees and their descendants.[124] Difficulties with past peace processes A common feature of all attempts to create a path which would lead to peace is the fact that more often than not promises to carry out "good will measures" were not carried out by both sides.[125] Furthermore, negotiations to attain agreement on the "final status" have been interrupted due to outbreak of hostilities. The result is that both Israelis and Palestinians have grown weary of the process. Israelis point out the fact that the Gaza Strip is fully controlled by the Hamas who do not want peace with Israel.[126] According to the Israeli view, this limits the ability of the Palestinians to make peace with Israel and enforce it over the long term. Furthermore, in the Israeli view, a violent overtake of the West Bank by the Hamas as a result of the creation of an unstable new state is likely.[127] Lastly, rhetoric from high-ranking Fatah officials promising a full, literal Palestinian right of return into Israel (a position no Israeli government can accept without destroying the Jewish character of Israel) makes peace negotiations more difficult for both sides.[128][page needed] The Palestinians point out to the extensive and continuing Israeli settlement effort in the West Bank restricting the area available to the Palestinian state.[129] An attempt to change the rules was made by Condoleezza Rice and Tzipi Livni when they brought forth the concept of a shelf agreement.[130] The idea was to disengage the linkage between negotiations and actions on the ground. In theory this would allow negotiations until a "shelf agreement" defining peace would be obtained. Such an agreement would not entail implementation. It would just describe what peace is. It would stay on the shelf but eventually will guide the implementation. The difficulty with this notion is that it creates a dis-incentive for Israel to reach such an agreement. The lack of clarity about what happens after agreement is reached will result in insurmountable pressures on Abbas to demand immediate implementation. However, from the Israeli point of view, the Palestinians are not ready to create a stable state, such an implementation process will almost guarantee instability in the Palestinian areas with a possible Hamas takeover as happened in Gaza.[131] As things stand now this brings the process to another impasse. To avoid it some definition of what happens after a shelf agreement is needed. One possible idea by this essay is to agree ahead of time that following attainment of a final status agreement there will be a negotiated detailed and staged implementation agreement which would define a process which would allow the creation of a stable functional Palestinian state in stages and over time.[132] In August 2013, an indication that such an idea can be acceptable to the Palestinians was given by Mahmud Abbas in a meeting with Meretz MK-s.[133] In the meeting Abbas stated "that there cannot be an interim agreement but only a final status deal that can be implemented in stages". Joint economic effort and development Main article: Projects working for peace among Israelis and Palestinians Despite the long history of conflict between Israelis and Palestinians, there are many people working on peaceful solutions that respect the rights of peoples on both sides. In March 2007, Japan proposed a plan for peace based on common economic development and effort, rather than on continuous wrangling over land. Both sides stated their support.[134] This became the Peace Valley plan, a joint effort of the Israeli, Palestinian and Jordanian governments to promote economic cooperation, and new business initiatives which can help both sides work together, and create a better diplomatic atmosphere and better economic conditions. It is mainly designed to foster efforts in the private sector, once governments provide the initial investment and facilities. See also Israel–Palestine relations Cold peace Israeli transfer of Palestinian militant bodies (2012) The Land of the Settlers Peace Now OneVoice Movement Women Wage Peace Movement Tolerance Monument Arab League and the Arab–Israeli conflict Americans for Peace Now Seeds of Peace The Case for Peace PeaceMaker (computer game) Projects working for peace among Arabs and Israelis List of Middle East peace proposals The Environmental Provisions of Oslo II Accords Israeli–Palestinian economic peace efforts History of the State of Palestine Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920) Faisal–Weizmann Agreement (1919) Peel Commission International law and the Arab–Israeli conflict Notes  The 91% land offer was based on the Israeli definition of the West Bank, but this differs by approximately 5 percentage points from the Palestinian definition. Palestinians use a total area of 5,854 square kilometers. Israel, however, omits the area known as No Man's Land (50 sq. km near Latrun), post-1967 East Jerusalem (71 sq. km), and the territorial waters of the Dead Sea (195 sq. km), which reduces the total to 5,538 sq. km. Thus, an Israeli offer of 91% (of 5,538 sq. km) of the West Bank translates into only 86% from the Palestinian perspective. Jeremy Pressman, International Security, vol 28, no. 2, Fall 2003, "Visions in Collision: What Happened at Camp David and Taba?" Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. On [1] Archived 22 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine. See pp. 16–17 References  Eran, Oded. "Arab-Israel Peacemaking." The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East. Ed. Avraham Sela. New York: Continuum, 2002, p. 121.  Quandt, William (2005). Peace process: American diplomacy and the Arab-Israeli conflict since 1967. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution and University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22374-8. Accessible at Google Books.  Pappe, I., 2004, A History of Modern Palestine: One Land, Two Peoples, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.  Slater, J., 2001, "What Went Wrong? The Collapse of the Israeli-Palestinian Peace Process", Political Science, Volume 116, Issue 2, pp. 171–199, p. 176.  Slater, J., 2001, What Went Wrong? The Collapse of the Israeli-Palestinian Peace Process, Political Science, Volume 116, Issue 2, pp. 171–199.  Bregman, A. & El-Tahri, J., 1998, The Sixty Year War: Israel and the Arabs, London, Penguin Books.  LeVine, Mark (23 September 2011). "Why Palestinians have a right to return home". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 21 June 2015. Retrieved 21 June 2015.  Facts About Israel. Jerusalem: Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2010. p. 52.  Saletan, William (9 July 2014). "Gaza civilian casualties: While Hamas targets innocent people, Israel tries to spare them". Slate. Archived from the original on 3 January 2016. Retrieved 4 January 2016. It [Hamas] has been firing the new [longer-range] missiles at cities anyway. Hamas has also flatly rejected the principle of sparing civilians. According to a Hamas spokesman, 'All Israelis have now become legitimate targets.'  Azulay, Moran. "Peres to Ynet: Abbas, not Hamas, is the partner." Archived 14 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine Ynetnews. 23 November 2012. 23 November 2012.  Peretz, Martin. Letter. Archived 6 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine The New York Times. 6 August 2020. 6 August 2020.  Oren, Michael. "Hamas Left Israel No Choice but to Strike." Archived 28 February 2019 at the Wayback Machine The New York Times. 20 November 2012. 20 November 2012.  Pedahzur, A., 2005, Suicide Terrorism, Cambridge, Polity Press, p. 65.  How much aid does the US give to Israel? USAFacts. Updated on October 12, 2023.  Levy, Elior. "PA challenges Netanyahu to accept 1967 lines." Archived 22 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine Ynetnews. 22 May 2011. 22 May 2011.  Kessler, Glenn (5 October 2005). "Talking Points Aside, Bush Stance on Palestinian State Is Not a First". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 1 September 2017.  Nasaw, Daniel (18 May 2009). "Obama restates support for Palestinian state during Netanyahu visit". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 27 September 2016. Retrieved 11 December 2016.  "Clinton laments ‘counter-productive’ U.N. vote on Palestine." Archived 18 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine Jewish Journal. 29 November 2012. 29 November 2012.  Kaplan, Rebecca. "Obama: Differences with Netanyahu are not personality clashes." Archived 1 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine CBS News. 24 March 2015. 25 March 2015.  F. Verbit, Mervin. "American Jews – More Right than Left on the Peace Process". erusalem Center for Public Affairs (JCPA). Berman Jewish Policy Archive. Archived from the original on 5 January 2014. Retrieved 4 January 2014.  "Qatar seeks 'urgent' prisoner swap between Israel, Hamas". The Cradle. Retrieved 16 October 2023.  Mills, Andrew; Al-Mughrabi, Nidal; Al-Mughrabi, Nidal (9 October 2023). "Qatar in talks with Hamas, Israel to swap hostages for prisoners". Reuters. Retrieved 16 October 2023.  Mishal, S. and Sela, A, 'The Palestinian Hamas: Vision, Violence and Coexistence' (Columbia University Press, 2006) p. 275.  Nathan Thrall (14 October 2010). "Our Man in Palestine". The New York Review of Books. Archived from the original on 16 October 2015. Retrieved 30 September 2010.  Senker, C, 'the ArAb-Israeli Conflict', (UK, 2004) pp. 4–9.  Halliday, F., 'The Middle East in International Relations', (Cambridge, 2005), p. 307.  Sayigh, R., 'The Palestinians: From Peasants to Revolutionaries' (New York, 2007) p. 200.  Chakrabarti, Ran. "Palestine and International Law." Archived 21 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Fair Observer. 30 January 2013.  Cook, J., 'Disappearing Palestine', (London, 2008), pp. 244–246.  "Middle East News – The Jerusalem Post". The Jerusalem Post. 4 February 2011. Archived from the original on 20 October 2012. Retrieved 19 March 2018.  Rachel Shabi, "The death of the Israel-Palestine two-state solution brings fresh hope", Archived 4 June 2019 at the Wayback Machine The Guardian (23 October 2012). Retrieved 17 December 2013.  David Poort, "The threat of a one-state solution", Archived 22 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine Al Jazeera (26 January 2011). Retrieved 17 December 2013.  Pearson Education (1 October 2006). The Changing Dynamics of Energy in the Middle East [Two Volumes]. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 66–. ISBN 978-0-313-08364-8.  Yezid Sayigh; Avi Shlaim (22 May 1997). The Cold War and the Middle East. Clarendon Press. pp. 4–. ISBN 978-0-19-157151-0.  Sela, Avraham, "Arab-Israeli Conflict," The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East. Ed. Avraham Sela. New York: Continuum, 2002. pp. 58–121.  Benny Morris (25 May 2011). Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist–Arab Conflict, 1881–1998. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 354. ISBN 978-0-307-78805-4. The Israeli cabinet publicly rejected the plan in communiques issued on December 10 and 22, calling it "an attempt to appease [the Arabs] at the expense of Israel." ...But it was Egypt and the USSR who in fact definitively shot down the plan. The Soviets dismissed it as "one-sided" and "pro-Israeli." Nasser rejected a separate deal with Israel (even if he recovered all of Sinai) as well as demilitarization of the peninsula after Israeli withdrawal, freedom of maritime passage for Israeli vessels, and various security arrangements—all stipulated in the Rogers Plan as part of the quid pro quo.  "Report of the Secretary-General Under Security Council Resolution 331 (1973) of 20 April 1973". United Nations, Security Council. 18 May 1973. Archived from the original on 7 April 2014. The Search for a Settlement from 1967 to date  Eran, Oded. "Arab-Israel Peacemaking." The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East. Ed. Avraham Sela. New York: Continuum, 2002, p. 137.  Eran, Oded. "Arab-Israel Peacemaking." The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East. Ed. Avraham Sela. New York: Continuum, 2002, p. 138.  Facts About Israel. Jerusalem: Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2010. p. 53.  Nathan Thrall, 'What Future for Israel?,' Archived 21 November 2015 at the Wayback Machine New York Review of Books 15 August 2013 pp. 64–67.  "Mr. Clinton's Mideast Peace Plan." Archived 11 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine The New York Times. 27 December 2000. 10 December 2019.  "Camp David Summit 2000." Archived 11 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine ADL. 10 December 2019.  History of failed peace talks (BBC, 26 November 2007) Archived 5 February 2019 at the Wayback Machine.  Gold, Dore. The Fight for Jerusalem: Radical Islam, the West, and the Future of the Holy City. Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing, Inc., 2007. p. 1.  Oren, Michael B. Power, Faith, and Fantasy: American in the Middle East, 1776 to the Present. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2007. p. 579.  Ross, Dennis. Doomed to Succeed: The U.S.-Israel Relationship From Truman to Obama. New York: Farrar, Starus and Giroux, 2015. p. 293.  Ben-Meir, Alon. "The Palestinian Refugees: A Reassessment and a Solution." Palestine – Israel Journal of Politics, Economics, and Culture, vol. 15/16, no. 4, 2009, pp. 65-71. ProQuest.  Hirsh, Michael. "Clinton To Arafat: it's All Your ...." Archived 11 December 2020 at the Wayback Machine Newsweek. 26 June 2001. 17 November 2020.  Clinton Parameters Archived 17 January 2015 at the Wayback Machine, The Jewish Peace Lobby website, full text (English).  Beilin, Yossi. "What really happened at Taba." Archived 13 March 2022 at the Wayback Machine Palestinian Refugee ResearchNet. 16 July 2002. 10 December 2020.  Salem, Tanja. "Palestinian Refugees." Archived 24 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine Centre for European Policy Studies. July 2003.  "Response of FM Peres to the decisions of the Arab Summit in Beirut – 28-Mar-2002". Archived from the original on 10 January 2006.  Eran, Oded. "Arab-Israel Peacemaking." The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East. Ed. Avraham Sela. New York: Continuum, 2002, p. 147.  A Plan for Peace That Still Could Be Archived 17 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine, New York Times Magazine, 13 February 2011.  PA rejects Olmert's offer to withdraw from 93% of West Bank (Haaretz, 12 August 2008) Archived 2 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine.  Israel Agrees to Truce with Hamas on Gaza Archived 28 February 2019 at the Wayback Machine, The New York Times, 18 June 2008.  Mark Tessler, "The Israeli–Palestinian Conflict," in Ellen Lust (ed.),The Middle East, SAGE Publications, 2013 pp. 287–366, p. 364.  Netanyahu's revolution Archived 24 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Haaretz, 18 June 2009  Full text of Netanyahu's foreign policy speech at Bar Ilan Archived 1 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine, Haaretz, 14 June 2009.  Dan Cohn-Sherbok, Dawoud El-Alami, The Palestine–Israeli Conflict: A Beginner's Guide, Oneworld Publications 2015 p. 87.  Burns, Robert (1 September 2010). "Obama Opens Long-Shot Talks on Mideast Peace". ABC News. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 10 November 2010. Retrieved 16 April 2020.  Landler, Mark (5 September 2010). "In Middle East Peace Talks, Clinton Faces a Crucial Test". The New York Times. p. A1. Archived from the original on 23 March 2019. Retrieved 22 February 2017.  Tessler, Mark A. A History of the Israeli–Palestinian Conflict Google Books. Originally published in 1994. 1 January 2011. p. 718. "Inhabitants of the occupied territories and other Palestinians had shown interest in a two-state solution since the mid-1970s, and the mainstream of the PLO had since the 1982 Arab summit."  Abu Toameh, Khaled. "Abbas: Land swap principle reached". The Jerusalem Post. Archived from the original on 26 November 2012. Retrieved 23 June 2010.  Bronner, Ethan (17 April 2012). "Palestinians Restate Demands to Netanyahu". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 28 February 2019. Retrieved 18 April 2012.  Mahmoud Abbas (15 April 2012). "Text of Abbas's letter to Netanyahu". The Times of Israel. Archived from the original on 18 April 2012. Retrieved 18 April 2012.  Stott, Michael; Nakhoul, Samia (9 May 2012). "Abbas ready to engage with Israel but says settlement building 'destroying hope'". Al Arabiya News. Reuters. Archived from the original on 9 May 2012. Retrieved 9 May 2012.  "Netanyahu backs demilitarized Palestinian state". Haaretz. 14 June 2009. Archived from the original on 31 May 2011. Retrieved 14 May 2012.  Winer, Stuart; Ahren, Raphael (14 May 2012). "PM promises Abbas a demilitarized Palestinian state". The Times of Israel. Archived from the original on 17 May 2012. Retrieved 14 May 2012.  Ravid, Barak (14 May 2012). "Netanyahu to Abbas: Israeli unity cabinet is a new opportunity for Mideast peace". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 14 May 2012. Retrieved 14 May 2012.  Ravid, Barak (29 July 2013). "Obama welcomes renewal of Israeli-Palestinian talks, but says 'hard choices' lie ahead". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 12 May 2015. Retrieved 7 February 2014.  "Hamas rejects Kerry's announcement: Abbas has no authority to negotiate". Ynetnews. Ynet. 20 July 2013. Archived from the original on 19 August 2019. Retrieved 23 July 2013.  Booth, William (29 July 2013). "Peace talks set to begin after Israel agrees to free 104 Palestinian prisoners". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 7 July 2019. Retrieved 6 October 2019.  Berman, Lazar. (7 August 2013) US peace envoy to come to Israel next week Archived 2 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine. The Times of Israel. Retrieved 14 August 2013.  AFP, 'US denies dismantling peace negotiators team,' Archived 2 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine Ynet, 6 May 2014.  "Hamas and Fatah unveil Palestinian reconciliation deal". BBC. 23 April 2014. Archived from the original on 18 July 2015. Retrieved 6 October 2019.  Sanctions and suspended talks – Israel responds to Palestinian reconciliation Archived 3 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine Ynet News 24 April 2014  Israel suspends peace talks with Palestinians after Fatah-Hamas deal Archived 6 October 2019 at the Wayback Machine. The Guardian, 24 April 2014  Israel suspends peace talks with Palestinians Archived 6 October 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Batsheva Sobelman, Los Angeles Times, 24 April 2014  Fatah and Hamas agree landmark pact after seven-year rift. Peter Beaumont and Paul Lewis, The Guardian, 24 April 2014  The rival Palestinian leaderships of Fatah and Hamas made a fresh attempt ... Archived 24 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine. France 24/AP, 23 April 2014  "Hamas and Fatah unveil Palestinian reconciliation deal". 23 April 2014. Archived from the original on 6 October 2019. Retrieved 6 October 2019.  "PLO, Hamas unity constitute reuniting West Bank and Gaza: Ban Ki-moon". 29 April 2014. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 1 May 2014.  Israel begins implementing economic sanctions against Palestinians Archived 3 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine Ynet News 29 April 2014  New York Times, 22 April 2014,Abbas Renews Threat to Dissolve Palestinian Authority if Peace Talks Fail Archived 6 October 2019 at the Wayback Machine  Rasgon, Adam. "Palestinian Leadership Considers ...." Archived 4 November 2019 at the Wayback Machine The Jerusalem Post. 23 August 2017. 4 November 2019.  Sanctions and suspended talks – Israel responds to Palestinian reconciliation Archived 3 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine – Retrieved 4 September 2014  Abbas to Submit 'Surprising' Proposal to Kerry Archived 8 January 2019 at the Wayback Machine – Retrieved 4 September 2014  US rejected Abbas's peace plan, PA says Archived 1 July 2019 at the Wayback Machine – Retrieved 4 September 2014  Abbas Peace Plan Calls for Israeli Withdrawal Within 3 Years Archived 10 January 2015 at the Wayback Machine – Retrieved 4 September 2014  Report: Abbas peace plan calls for Israeli withdrawal from West Bank Archived 31 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine – Retrieved 4 September 2014  Abbas' peace plan: Israeli withdrawal from West Bank within three years Archived 12 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine – Retrieved 4 September 2014  Abu Mazen's Three-Year Peace Plan for Israel Archived 11 July 2019 at the Wayback Machine – Retrieved 4 September 2014  Abbas: If Security Council bid fails, we may end security cooperation with Israel Archived 11 June 2019 at the Wayback Machine – Retrieved 1 October 2014  "Palestinians sign up to join ICC". BBC News. 31 December 2014. Archived from the original on 28 November 2018. Retrieved 19 March 2018.  Staff. "Israel freezes Palestinian funds in response to ICC bid". The Times of Israel. Archived from the original on 28 January 2015. Retrieved 7 February 2015.  "Palestinians to ban sale of products from 6 major Israeli companies". The Jerusalem Post. 9 February 2015. Archived from the original on 20 March 2018. Retrieved 19 March 2018.  "Peace to Prosperity: The Economic Plan" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 June 2021. Retrieved 28 February 2021.  Times of Israel, 26 September 2019, At UN, Abbas threatens to nix agreements with Israel if West Bank land annexed Archived 2 October 2019 at the Wayback Machine  étrangères, Ministère de l'Europe et des Affaires. "Participation of Jean-Yves Le Drian in the Munich Security Conference – Declaration by the Spokesperson of the Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs (15-16 Feb.20)". France Diplomacy – Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 13 January 2021. Retrieved 11 January 2021.  "A New 'Quartet' for Israeli-Palestinian Peace". 20 July 2020. Archived from the original on 27 September 2020. Retrieved 18 September 2020.  étrangères, Ministère de l'Europe et des Affaires. "Joint Statement of the Foreign Ministers of France, Germany, Egypt and Jordan (7 Jul. 20)". France Diplomatie – Ministère de l'Europe et des Affaires étrangères. Archived from the original on 20 February 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2022.  "Arab, European states call Israel and Palestine to restart talks". Al Jazeera. 24 September 2020. Archived from the original on 24 September 2020. Retrieved 24 September 2020.  "Amman's closing statement on the Middle East Peace Process". Roya news. 24 September 2020. Archived from the original on 16 January 2021. Retrieved 24 September 2020.  "Egypt, Germany, France, Jordan meet to revive Mideast talks". WAPO. 11 January 2021. Retrieved 11 January 2021.[dead link]  "Arab, European foreign ministers discuss Palestinian, Israeli Occupation peace process in Cairo". RoyaNews. 11 January 2021. Archived from the original on 15 January 2021. Retrieved 11 January 2021.  "The Middle East, including the Palestinian Question: Briefing and Consultations". SecurityCouncilReport. 24 March 2021. Archived from the original on 25 March 2021. Retrieved 24 March 2021.  Staff, The New Arab (20 February 2022). "Egypt, France, Germany, Jordan FMs condemn Israel settlement expansion, evictions". english.alaraby.co.uk/. Archived from the original on 20 February 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2022.  "Foreign ministers of Egypt, France, Germany and Jordan reiterate commitment to a just peace in the Middle East". WAFA. 22 September 2022. Archived from the original on 26 September 2022. Retrieved 25 September 2022.  Shahram Akbarzadeh; Kylie Baxter (13 June 2018). Middle East Politics and International Relations. Taylor & Francis. pp. 77–78. ISBN 978-1-351-67715-8.  "Report of the Middle East Quartet". United Nations. 1 July 2016. Archived from the original on 24 March 2021. Retrieved 25 March 2021.  "Israel/Palestine: Parameters for a Two-State Settlement". International Crisis Group. 28 November 2016. Archived from the original on 21 March 2021. Retrieved 25 March 2021.  "Diplomatic Quartet releases report on advancing two-state solution to Israel-Palestine conflict". United Nations. 1 July 2016. Archived from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 25 March 2021.  "Rejecting Trump, Abbas at UN says US is too biased to mediate peace talks". 27 September 2018. Archived from the original on 30 September 2020. Retrieved 18 September 2020.  "Security Council Report" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 25 September 2020.  "UN unable to convene Quartet to discuss annexation". MEMO. 27 June 2020. Archived from the original on 29 September 2020. Retrieved 25 September 2020.  "Abraham Accord, Quartet – Press Conference by Secretary-General António Guterres at UN Headquarters (SG/SM/20258) (Excerpts)". United Nations. 25 September 2020. Archived from the original on 10 October 2020. Retrieved 25 September 2020.  "Palestinian leader calls for new peace process in UN speech". WAPO. 25 September 2020. Archived from the original on 27 September 2020. Retrieved 25 September 2020.  "A New Tune From The Middle East Quartet – OpEd". Eurasia review. 26 February 2021. Archived from the original on 28 February 2021. Retrieved 24 March 2021.  "Mideast Quartet Discusses Reviving 'Meaningful' Israel, Palestinian Peace Talks". Haaretz. 24 March 2021. Archived from the original on 23 March 2021. Retrieved 24 March 2021.  "Statement by the Middle East Quartet Envoys". UNSCO. 23 March 2021. Archived from the original on 26 March 2021. Retrieved 24 March 2021.  Brynen, Rex. "The 'Geneva Accord' and the Palestinian Refugee Issue." ResearchGate. 29 February 2004.  Amishav Medved, Yael. "Jordan as the Palestinian Arab state". Israel Science and Technology. Archived from the original on 22 May 2016. Retrieved 4 January 2014.  "ZOA:Palestinian Arab Violations of Road Map". IMRA. Archived from the original on 4 January 2014. Retrieved 4 January 2014.  "Hamas." Archived 25 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 January 2019. 6 December 2020.  al-Mughrabi, Nidal (9 November 2007). "Hamas leader sees W.Bank takeover if Israel leaves". Reuters. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 1 July 2017.  Schwartz, Adi and Einat Wilf. "The War of Return." Google Books. 28 April 2020. 7 December 2020.  "Palestinian official: We're ready for talks with U.S., but not Israel - Haaretz - Israel News". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 22 October 2009. Retrieved 11 January 2022.  Al Tamimi, Jumana (26 August 2008). "Rice discusses 'shelf agreement'". Gulf News. Archived from the original on 4 January 2014. Retrieved 4 January 2014.  "Shelf Agreement: Attempt to Anchor the Two State Solution may Bury" (PDF). Reut Institute. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 4 January 2014.  "A better route to Israeli-Palestinian peace?". MideastWeb Middle East Web Log. Archived from the original on 14 April 2015. Retrieved 4 January 2014.  "Abbas tells Meretz MKs: No progress in peace talks with Israel". The Jerusalem Post. Archived from the original on 4 January 2014. Retrieved 4 January 2014.  Israelis, Palestinians applaud Japanese development plan Archived 12 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine Associated Press via Haaretz.com, 15 March 2007. External links Israel-Palestinian Negotiations, Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs The Reut Institute BBC News – History of Mid-East peace talks, 29 July 2013 Palestinian-Israeli Relations, MyJewishLearning.com "Netanyahu's two-state mask has slipped" by Henry Siegman "The Arab-Israeli Peace Process Is Over. Enter the Era of Chaos" by Lee Smith "Netanyahu lowers expectations for Israeli-Palestinian peace" by Lahav Harkov A presentation of the Lubavitcher Rebbe's views on the Jewish people's connection with the Holy Land, the Arab-Israeli conflict, and the so-called "Land for Peace" issue The Israel Project: Timeline of Israeli-Arab Peace Initiatives since 1977 The History of the Peace Process in the Context of the 2013 John Kerry Peace Efforts Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung, Palestinian Territories August 2013 Beyond Intractability: A Free Knowledge Base on More Constructive Approaches to Destructive Conflict The Jerusalem Fund Resources vte Diplomacy and peace proposals in the Arab–Israeli conflict Background 1914 Damascus Protocol1915 McMahon–Hussein Correspondence1916 Sykes–Picot Agreement1917 Balfour Declaration1918 Declaration to the Seven / Anglo-French Declaration1919 Faisal–Weizmann Agreement1920 San Remo conference1922 Churchill White Paper1937 Peel Commission1939 White Paper1939 London Conference1946 Morrison–Grady Plan1947 Bevin Plan1946–47 London Conference1947 UN Partition Plan1948 American trusteeship proposal 1948–1983 1948 UN General Assembly (UNGA) Resolution 1941949 Armistice agreements / Lausanne Conference1950 Tripartite Declaration1967 Khartoum Resolution / UN Security Council (UNSC) Resolution 2421973 UNSC Resolution 338 / UNSC Resolution 3391974 Israel–Syria disengagement agreement / UNSC Resolution 3501978 UNSC Resolution 425 / Camp David Accords1979 UNSC Resolution 446 / Egypt–Israel peace treaty Palestinian autonomy talks / UNSC Resolution 4521980 UNSC Resolution 4781981 UNSC Resolution 4971981–1982 Fahd Plan1982 Reagan peace plan1983 Israel–Lebanon agreement 1991–2016 1991 Madrid Conference1993 Oslo Accords1994 Gaza–Jericho Agreement / Israel–Jordan peace treaty1995 Beilin–Abu Mazen agreement1998 Wye River Memorandum1999 Sharm El Sheikh Memorandum2000 Camp David Summit / Clinton Parameters2000 Isratin2001 Taba Summit2002 Beirut Summit and peace initiative / Road map2003 Geneva Initiative2004 UNSC Resolution 1559 / UNSC Resolution 15662005 UNSC Resolution 1583 / Sharm El Sheikh Summit / Israeli disengagement from Gaza / Agreement on Movement and Access2006 UNSC Resolution 17012007 Annapolis Conference2010 Israeli–Palestinian peace talks2013 Israeli–Palestinian peace talks2016 John Kerry Parameters 2019–present 2019 Trump peace plan2020 Abraham Accords Israel–UAE normalization agreementBahrain–Israel normalization agreementIsrael–Sudan normalization agreementIsrael–Morocco normalization agreement2022  Israeli–Lebanese maritime border dispute agreement Category: Israeli–Palestinian peace process
  • Condition: New without tags
  • Condition: In Excellent Condition
  • Base Metal: Unknown
  • Metal: Unknown
  • Chain Type: Anchor/Mariner
  • Main Stone Shape: Chip
  • Occasion: Anniversary
  • Pendant Shape: Asymmetrical
  • Cut Grade: Good
  • Material: Unknown
  • Colour: Gold
  • Main Stone: No Stone
  • Main Stone Colour: Palestine
  • Main Stone Creation: Simulated
  • Pendant/Locket Type: Charm
  • Setting Style: Bar
  • Main Stone Treatment: Not Enhanced
  • Necklace Length: 50 cm
  • Number of Gemstones: 1
  • Secondary Stone: No Stone
  • Brand: Palestine
  • Style: Pendant
  • Country of Origin: Great Britain
  • Metal Purity: Unknown
  • Theme: Religious
  • Type: Necklace

PicClick Insights - Israel Palestine Country Map Flag Gold Pendant West Bank Jewellery Stylish Icon PicClick Exclusive

  •  Popularity - 0 watchers, 0.0 new watchers per day, 2 days for sale on eBay. 0 sold, 1 available. 1 bid.
  •  Best Price -
  •  Seller - 3,187+ items sold. 0.3% negative feedback. Great seller with very good positive feedback and over 50 ratings.

People Also Loved PicClick Exclusive