Poseidon Silver Coin Greek Mythology Olympians God of the Sea Storms Earthquakes

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POSEIDON SILVER COIN

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POSEIDON

Poseidon (/pəˈsaɪdən, pɒ-, poʊ-/;[1] Greek: Ποσειδῶν) is one of the Twelve Olympians in ancient Greek religion and mythology, presiding over the sea, storms, earthquakes and horses.[2] He was the protector of seafarers and the guardian of many Hellenic cities and colonies. In pre-Olympian Bronze Age Greece, Poseidon was venerated as a chief deity at Pylos and Thebes, with the cult title "earth shaker";[2] in the myths of isolated Arcadia, he is related to Demeter and Persephone and was venerated as a horse, and as a god of the waters.[3] Poseidon maintained both associations among most Greeks: He was regarded as the tamer or father of horses,[2] who, with a strike of his trident, created springs (the terms for horses and springs are related in the Greek language).[4] His Roman equivalent is Neptune.

Homer and Hesiod suggest that Poseidon became lord of the sea when, following the overthrow of his father Cronus, the world was divided by lot among Cronus' three sons; Zeus was given the sky, Hades the underworld, and Poseidon the sea, with the Earth and Mount Olympus belonging to all three.[2][5] In Homer's Iliad, Poseidon supports the Greeks against the Trojans during the Trojan War; in the Odyssey, during the sea-voyage from Troy back home to Ithaca, the Greek hero Odysseus provokes Poseidon's fury by blinding his son, the Cyclops Polyphemus, resulting in Poseidon punishing him with storms, causing the complete loss of his ship and companions, and delaying his return by ten years. Poseidon is also the subject of a Homeric hymn. In Plato's Timaeus and Critias, the legendary island of Atlantis was Poseidon's domain.[6][7][8]

Poseidon is famous for his contests with other deities for winning the patronage of the city. According to legend, Athena became the patron goddess of the city of Athens after a competition with Poseidon, though he remained on the Acropolis in the form of his surrogate, Erechtheus. After the fight, Poseidon sent a monstrous flood to the Attic plain to punish the Athenians for not choosing him.[9] In similar competitions with other deities in different cities, he causes devastating floods when he loses. Poseidon is a horrifying and avenging god and must be honoured even when he is not the patron deity of the city.[10]

Some scholars suggested that Poseidon was probably a Pelasgian god [11] or a god of the Minyans.[12] However it is possible that Poseidon, like Zeus was a common god of all Greeks from the beginning.[13]

Etymology

The earliest attested occurrence of the name, written in Linear B, is 𐀡𐀮𐀅𐀃 Po-se-da-o or 𐀡𐀮𐀅𐀺𐀚 Po-se-da-wo-ne,[14] which correspond to Ποσειδάων (Poseidaōn) and ΠοσειδάFoνος (Poseidawοnos) in Mycenean Greek; in Homeric Greek it appears as Ποσιδάων (Posidaōn); in Aeolic as Ποτε(ι)δάων (Pote(i)daōn); in Doric as Ποτειδάν (Poteidan) and Ποτειδᾶς (Poteidas); in Arcadic as Ποσoιδᾱν (Posoidan). In inscriptions with Laconic style from Tainaron, Helos and Thuria as Ποhoιδᾱν (Pohoidan), indicating that the Dorians took the name from the older population.[15] The form Ποτειδάϝων (Poteidawōn) appears in Corinth.[16]

The origins of the name "Poseidon" are unclear and the possible etymologies are contradictive between the scholars. One theory breaks it down into an element meaning "husband" or "lord" (Greek πόσις (posis), from PIE *pótis) and another element meaning "earth" (δᾶ (da), Doric for γῆ (gē)), producing something like lord or spouse of Da, i.e. of the earth; this would link him with Demeter, "Earth-mother".[17] Burkert finds that "the second element δᾶ- remains hopelessly ambiguous" and finds a "husband of Earth" reading "quite impossible to prove".[2] According to Beekes in Etymological Dictionary of Greek, "there is no indication that δᾶ means 'earth'",[18] although the root da appears in the Linear B inscription E-ne-si-da-o-ne, "earth-shaker".[2][19]

Another, theory interprets the second element as related to the (presumed) Doric word *δᾶϝον dâwon, "water", Proto-Indo-European *dah₂- "water" or *dʰenh₂- "to run, flow", Sanskrit दन् dā́-nu- "fluid, drop, dew" and names of rivers such as Danube (< *Danuvius) or Don. This would make *Posei-dawōn into the master of waters.[20][15]

Plato in his dialogue Cratylus gives two traditional etymologies: either the sea restrained Poseidon when walking as a "foot-bond" (ποσίδεσμον), or he "knew many things" (πολλά εἰδότος or πολλά εἰδῶν).[21]

Beekes suggests that the word has probably a Pre-Greek origin.[22] At least a few sources deem Poseidon as a "prehellenic" (i.e. Pelasgian) word, considering an Indo-European etymology improbable.[23][citation needed]

Bronze Age Greece

Linear B (Mycenean Greek) inscriptions

If surviving Linear B clay tablets can be trusted, the names po-se-da-wo-ne and Po-se-da-o ("Poseidon")[14] occurs with greater frequency than does di-u-ja ("Zeus"). A feminine variant, po-se-de-ia, is also found, indicating a lost consort goddess, in effect the precursor of Amphitrite.

Poseidon was the chief god at Pylos. The title wa-na-ka appears in the inscriptions. Poseidon was identified with wanax from the Homeric era to classical Greece. (anax). The title didn't mean only king, but also protector .Wanax had chthonic aspects, and he was closely associated with Poseidon, who had the title "Lord of the Underworld".The chthonic nature of Poseidon is also indicated by his title E-ne-si-da-o-ne (Earth-shaker) in Mycenean Knossos and Pylos. Through Homer the epithet was also used in classical Greece. (ennosigaios, ennosidas).[24]

Po-tini-ja (potnia :lady or mistress) was the chief goddess at Pylos and she was closely associated with Poseidon. She was the Mycenean goddess of nature and Poseidon-Wanax is one from the gods who may be considered her "male paredros". The earth shaker received offerings in the cave of the goddess of childbirth Eileithyia at Amnisos in Crete. Poseidon is allied with Potnia and the divine child.[25][26]

Wa-na-ssa (anassa:queen or lady) appears in the inscriptions usually in plural. (Wa-na-ssoi). The dual number is common in Indoeuropean grammar (usually for chthonic deities like the Erinyes) and the duality was used for Demeter and Persephone in classical Greece (the double named goddesses).[27][28] Potnia and wanassa refer to identical deities or two aspects of the same deity.[24]

E-ri-nu (Erinys) is attested in the inscriptions.[29] In some ancient cults Erinys is related to Poseidon and her name is an epithet of Demeter.[30]

It is possible that Demeter appears as Da-ma-te in a Linear B inscription (PN EN 609), however the interpretation is still under dispute.[31] Si-to Po-tini-ja is probably related with Demeter as goddess of grain.[32]

Tablets from Pylos record sacrificial goods destined for "the Two ladies and the Lord" (or "to the Two Queens and the King": wa-na-soi, wa-na-ka-te). Wa-na-ssoi may be related with Demeter and Persephone, or their precursors, goddesses who were not associated with Poseidon in later periods.[33][28]

Mycenean cult

Dusing the Mycenean period the ancestral male gods of the Myceneans were probably not represented in human forms, and the information given by the tablets found at Pylos and Knossos is insufficient.[32] Poseidon was the chief deity at Pylos and Thebes. He is identified with Anax and he carried the title "Master of the Underworld". Anax had probably a cult associated with the protection of the palace.[24] In Acrocorinth he was worshipped as Poseidon Anax during the Mycenean age.[25] In the city there was the famous spring Peirene which in a myth is related to the winged horse Pegasus.[34] In Attica there was a cult of Anax heroes who was connected to Poseidon.[25] A cult title of Poseidon was "earth-shaker" and in Knossos he was worshipped together with the goddess Eleithyia who was related to the annual birth of the divine child.[25] Potnia was the Mycenean goddess of nature and she was the consort of Poseidon at Pylos. She is mentioned together with bucrania in decorated jugs and he was associated with the animals and especially to the bull.[24] In Athens Poseidon was an inland god who created the salt-sea Erecthēιs (Ερεχθηίς), "sea of Erechtheus". In Acropolis his cult was superimposed on the cult of the Pre-Greek god Erechtheus. In Athens and Asine he was worshipped in the house of the king during the Mycenean period.[34] The bull was the favourite animal for sacrifices and it seems that horses were rarely used during the burial of the Mycenean leaders.[32]

Arcadian myths

Poseidon pursuing a woman, probably by Achilleus painter, 480-450BC. Metropolitan Museum of Art, Manhattan NY

In the Arcadian myths , Poseidon is related to Demeter and Despoina (another name of Kore- Persephone) and he was worshipped with the surname Hippios in many Arcadian cities.[10] At Thelpusa and Phigalia there were sister worships which are very important for the study of primitive religions. In these cults Demeter and Poseidon were chthonic divinities of the underworld.[30]

Near Thelpusa the river Ladon descended to the sunctuary of Demeter Erinys (Demeter-Fury). During her wandering in search of her daughter Demeter changed into a mare to avoid Poseidon. Poseidon took the form of a stallion and after their mating she gave birth to a daughter whose name was not allowed to be told to the unitiated and a horse called Arion (very swift). Her daughter obviously had the shape of a mare too. At first Demeter became angry and she was given the surname Erinys (fury) by the Thelpusians.[30][10] The Erinyes were deities of vangeance, and Erinys had a similar function with the goddess Dike (Justice).[35] In the very old myth of Thelpusa Demeter-Erinys and Poseidon are divinities of the underworld in a pre-mythic period. Poseidon appears as a horse. In Greek folklore the horses had chthonic associations and it was believed that they could create springs.[10] In European folklore the water-creatures or water-spirits appear with the shape of a horse or a bull. In Greece the river god Acheloos is represented like a bull or a man-bull.[36] Many people when sacrificed to Demeter should make a premilinary sacrifice to Acheloos [30]

At Phigalia Demeter had a sanctuary in a cavern and she was given the surname Melaina (black). The goddess was related to the black undeworld. In a similar myth Poseidon appears as horse and Demeter gives birth to a daughter whose name was not allowed to be told to the unitiated (At Lycosura her daughter was called Despoina). Demeter angry with Poseidon put on a black dressing and shut herself in the cavern. When the fruits of the earth were perished, Zeus sent the Moirai to Demeter who listened to them and led aside her wrath. In this cult we have traces of a very old cult of Demeter and Poseidon as deities of the underworld.[30]

In another Arcadian myth when Rhea had given birth to Poseidon, she told Cronus that she had given birth to a horse, and gave him a foal to swallow instead of the child.[10][37] In the Homeric Hymn Demeter puts a dark mourning robe around her shoulders as a sign of her sorrow.[30] Demeter's mare-form was worshipped into historical times. The xoanon of Melaina at Phigalia shows how the local cult interpreted her, as goddess of nature. A Medusa type with a horse's head with snaky hair, holding a dove and a dolphin, probably representing her power over air and water.[38]

Boeotian myths

Orestes being purified by Apollo. Clytemnestra tries to awake the sleeping Erinyes to the left. Apulian red-figure bell-krater, 380–370 BC by Eumenides painter. Louvre, Paris

The myth of Poseidon appearing as a horse and mating with Demeter was not localized in Arcadia. At Haliartos in Boeotia near Thebes Poseidon appears as stallion. He mates with Erinys near the spring of Tilpousa and she gives birth to the faboulous horse Arion.[10] At Tilpusa we have a very old cult of the chthonic deities Erinys and Poseidon. The water-god Poseidon[39] appears as a horse which seems to represent the water-spirit [36] and Erinys is probably the personification of a revenging earth-spirit.[40][35] From earlier times at Delphi Poseidon was joined in a religious union with the earth-goddess Ge. She is represented as a snake which is a form of the earth-spirit.[39]

In the Theogony of Hesiod Poseidon once slept with the monstrous Medousa near the mountain Helikon. She conceived the winged horse Pegasus who sprang out of her body when Perseus cut off her head. Pegasus stuck the ground with his hoof and created the famous spring Hippocrene near Helikon.[10]

Praxidicai were female deities of judicial punishment worshipped in the region of Haliartos in the historical times. Ttheir origin is probably the same with Erinys. Their images depicted only the heads of the goddesses probably a representation of the earth goddess emerging from the ground.[30] Praxidice is and epithet of Persephone in the Orphic Hymn. Persephone is sometimes depicted with her head emerging from the ground.[41][42]

Origins

Colossal-type statue of Poseidon-Neptune, probably sculpted in a workshop in Aphrodisias (Asia Minor). It was at Palaemon's sanctuary in Isthmia, where it was described by Pausanias. Prado Museum, Madrid

During the Mycenean period Poseidon was worshipped in several regions in Greece. At Pylos and some other cities he was a god of the underworld (Lord of the Underworld) and his cult was related to the protection of the palace. He carried the title anax, king or protector. His consort potnia, lady or mistress, was the Mycenean goddess of nature. Her main aspects were birth and vegetation.[24] Poseidon had the title "Enesidaon" (earth-shaker) and in Crete he was associated with the goddess of childbirth Eleithyia. Through Homer the Mycenean titles were also used in classical Grreece with similar meaning. He was identified with anax and he carried the epithets "Ennosigaios" and "Ennosidas" (earth-shaker). Potnia was a title which accompanied female goddesses.[25][24] The goddess of nature survived in the Eleusinian cult, where the following words were uttered: "Mighty Potnia bore a strong son".[43] In the heavily sea-dependent Mycenaean culture, there is not sufficient evidence that Poseidon was connected with the sea; it is unclear whether "Posedeia" was a sea-goddess. The Greeks invaders came from far inland and they were not familiarized with the sea.[44]

In the primitive Boeotian and Arcadian myths Poseidon, the god of the underworld, appears as a horse and he is mating with the earth goddess.[39] The earth goddess is called Erinys or Demeter and she gives birth to the fabulous horse Arion and the unnamed daughter Despoina, which is another name of Persephone.[10] The horse represents the divine spirit (numen) and is related to the liquid element and the underworld.[45] In Greek folklore the horse is associated with the underworld and it was believed that it had the ability to create springs.[10] In the European folklore the water-spirit appears with the shape of a horse or a bull. In Greece the river god Acheloos is represented as a bull or a man-bull.[36] Burkert suggests that the Hellenic cult of Poseidon as a horse god may be connected to the introduction of the horse and war-chariot from Anatolia to Greece around 1600 BC.[2]

In the Boeotian myth Poseidon is the water-god and Erinys is a goddess of the underworld.[39] She is probably the personification of a revenging earth spirit[40][46] and it seems that she had a similar function with the goddess Dike (Justice).[35] At the spring "Tilpousa" she gives birth to the fabulous horse Arion. In the Arcadian myth Poseidon Hippios (horse) is mating with the mare-Demeter. At Thelpousa Demeter-Erinys gives birth to the horse Arion and to an unnamable daughter who has the shape of a mare. In some neighbour cults the daughter was called Despoina (mistress),which is another name of Persephone.[10] The theriomorph form of gods seems to be local in Arcadia in an old religion associated with xoana.[27]

From left to right: Poseidon, Dionysos, Zeus. Black figured neck-amphora, 540 BC. National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen

According to some theories Poseidon was a Pelasgian god or a god of the Minyans. Traditionally the Minyans are considered Pelasgians and they lived in Thessaly and Boeotia. In Thessaly (Pelasgiotis) there was a close relation to the horses. Poseidon created the first horse Skyphios hitting a rock with his trident and managed in the same way to drain the valley of Tempe.[13] The Thessalians were famous charioteers.[47] Some of the oldest Greek myths appear in Boeotia. In ancient cults Poseidon was worshipped as a horse. The mythical horse Arion was a sire of Poseidon-horse with Erinys and the winged horse Pegasus a sire of Poseidon foaled by Medousa.[10] At Onchestos he had an old famous festival which included horseracing.[10] However it is possible that Poseidon like Zeus was a common god of all Greeks from the beginning.[13]

It is possible that the Greeks did not bring with them other gods except Zeus, Eos, and the Dioskouroi.[45] The Pelasgian god probably represented the fertilising power of water, and then he was he was considered god of the sea . As the sea encircles and holds the earth in its position, Poseidon is the god who holds the earth and who has the ability to shake the earth.[48] The primeval water who encircled the earth ( Oceanus) is the origin of all rivers and springs. They are children of Oceanus and Tethys.[34]

Farnell suggested that Poseidon was originally the god of the Minyans who occupied Thessaly and Boeotia. There is a similarity between the Boeotian and Arcadian myths and especially between the myths which represent the god of the waters Poseidon as a horse.[39] The mythical horse Arion appears in both regions. The offspring of Poseidon winged horse Pegasus creates famous springs near Helikon and at Troizen. Some springs of Poseidon have similar names in Boeotia and Peloponnese.[13][12] It is possible that the name of Poseidon Helikonios in Boeotia whose fest included horseracing derives from the mountain Helikon. The Minyans had trade contacts with Mycenean Pylos and the Achaeans adopted the cult of Poseidon Helikonios. The cult spread in Peloponnese and then to Ionia when the Achaeans migrated to Asia Minor.[13][12]

Hermes, Dionysos, Ariadne and Poseidon (Amphitrite is depicted on side B.). Detail from the belly of an Attic red-figure hydria, ca. 510 BC–500 BC. Louvre, Paris

Nilsson suggested that Poseidon was probably a common god of all Greeks from the beginning. The Greeks occupied Thessaly, Boeotia and Peloponnese during the Bronze Age. In all these regions Poseidon was the god of the horses. The origin of his cult was Peloponnese and he was the inland god of the Achaeans, the god of the "horses" and the "earthquakes". When the Achaeans migrated to Ionia there was a transition to regarding Poseidon as the god of the sea because the Ionians were sea-dependent.[34] With no doubt he was originally the god of the waters. The Greeks believed that the cause of the earthquakes was the erosion of the rocks by the waters, by the rivers in Peloponnese which they saw to disappear into the earth and then to burst out again. The god of the waters became the "earth-shaker".[34][49] This is what the natural philosophers Thales Anaximenes and Aristotle believed and could not be different from the folk belief. [50] In the Greek legends Arethusa and the river Alphaus traversed underground under the sea and reappeared at Ortygia.[51][52]

In any case, the early importance of Poseidon can still be glimpsed in Homer's Odyssey, where Poseidon rather than Zeus is the major mover of events. In Homer, Poseidon is the master of the sea.[53] He is described as a majestic scary and avenging monarch of the sea.[44]

Worship of Poseidon

Artemision Bronze, bronze statue probably of Poseidon, Severe style 480-440 BC. The statue was possibly a thank offering to the god after the battle of Artemision (480 BC).[54]National Archaeological Museum Athens

I begin to sing about Poseidon, the great god,

mover of the earth and fruitless sea

god of the deep who is also lord of Helicon [55] and wide Aegae.

A two-fold office the gods allotted you,

O Shaker of the Earth, to be a tamer of horses

and a saviour of ships!

Hail, Poseidon, Holder of the Earth, dark-haired lord!

O blessed one, be kindly in heart

and help those who voyage in ships!

( Homeric Hymn to Poseidon) [56]

The worship of Poseidon was extended all over Greece and southern Italy , but he was specially honoured in Peloponnese which is called "the residence of Poseidon" and in the Ionic cities.[11] The significance of his cult is indicated by the names of cities like Poteidaia in the Chalkidiki peninsula and Poseidonia (Paestum), a Greek colony in Italy.[2] Poseidion is a frequent Greek placename along coastlines and the name of a Greek colony at the Syrian coast.[57]

In Ionia his cult was introduced by Achaean colonists from Greece in the 11th century BC. Traditionally the colonists came from Pylos where Poseidon was the principal god of the city. The god had a famous temple near the mountain Mycale.[2] The month Poseidaon is the month of the winter-storms. The name of the month was used in Ionic territories, in Athens, in the islands of the Aegean and in the cities of Asia Minor. At Lesbos and Epidauros the month was called Poseidios. During this month Poseidon was worshipped as the "master of the sea" in a bright cult.[13]

Poseidon with trident on hippocamp (sea-horse). Athenian black-figure white-ground pottery lekythos ca. 500-480 BC, by Athena Painter. Ashmolean Museum, Oxford

Poseidon was a major civic god of several cities: in Athens, he was second only to Athena in importance, while in Corinth and many cities of Ionia and Magna Graecia he was the chief god of the polis.[2] Many fests of Poseidon included athletic competitions and horseracing. In Corinth his cult was related to the Isthmian games.[2] In Arcadia his cult was related to the games "Hippocrateia" and at Sparta he had a temple near an Hippodrome. In Onchestos of Boeotia horseracing was a part of the athletic games in honour of the god.[10][13]

Poseidon was considered a symbol of unity. The Panionia the festival of all Ionians near Mycale were celebrated in honour of Poseidon Helikonios [58] and was the place of meeting of the Ionian League.[59] He was the patron god of the Amphictiony of Kalaureia. At Onchestos of Boeotia he was worshipped as Poseidon Helikonios. His sanctuary became the place of meeting of the second Boeotian league.[13][60] At Helike of Achaea there was the famous temple of Poseidon Helikonios,which was the place of meeting of the Achaean League.[61]

The "master of the sea" creates clouds and storms, but he is also the protector of the sailors. He has the ability to calm the sea for a good voyage and save those who are in danger.[11] He was worshipped with the surname "savior" as the protector of the seafarers and the fishermen.[54] He is the "earthshaker", however he is also the protector against the earthquakes. In some cults he was worshipped as the "bringer of safety" or "protector of the house and the foundations". [13]

The god was considered the creator of the first horse, and it was believed that he taught men the art of taming horses. He was depicted on horseback, or riding in a chariot drawn by two or four horses.[11] He had a lot of temples in Arcadia, with the surname Hippios (of the horse) and he was also transformed into a horse to seduce Demeter .[13]

Poseidon with a trident and a fish. Tondo of an Attic red-figured kylix, 520-510 BC, from Etruria.National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen.

Being the god of waters, Poseidon is related to the primeval water which encircles the earth (Oceanus),[11] who is the father of all rivers and springs. He can create springs with the strike of his trident.[2] He was worshipped as "ruler of the springs" and "leader of the nymphs" [62] In Thessaly it was believed that he drained the area cutting the rocks of Tempe with his trident.[2][63] In Greek folklore the horse can also create springs .[10]

As god of the sea Poseidon was also god of fishing and especially of sea-fishing. Tuna was offered to him by the fishermen during the festal meal for the protection of the nets .[2] Tuna and later dolphin was his attribute. He was worshipped in many islands and cities by the coast. At Corcyra a roaring bull near the sea-shore quaranteed a good fishing.[64] The devastating storm of Poseidon is related to fishermen and they poured drink offerings to Poseidon -savior into the sea.[54] The god of inland waters is very close to vegetation and Poseidon was worshipped in many cities as god of vegetation. Haloa in Athens was a fest of vegetation. The Protrygaia, a wine-fest seem to belong to Dionysus and Poseidon.[64]

In several cities Poseidon was worshipped in relation to the genealogy and the phratry.[2] At Tinos he was worshipped as a healer-god, probably a forerunner of the famous Evangelistria.[64]

The bull is related to Poseidon mainly in Ionia. The sacrifice of a bull offered to Poseidon is mentioned by Homer in an Ionic festival. (Panionia) [65][64] The sacrifices offered to Poseidon consisted of black and white bulls which were killed or thrown into the sea. Boars and rams were also used and in Argolis horses were thrown into a well as a sacrifice to him.[66][11]

Gigantomachy scene: Poseidon fighting Polybotes. Tondo of an Attic red-figure kylix, ca. 475-470 BC. Painter of the Paris Gigantomachy (eponymous vase), circle of the Brygos Painter found in Vulci BnF Museum (Cabinet des médailles), Paris

In his benign aspect, Poseidon was seen as creating new islands and offering calm seas. When offended or ignored, he supposedly struck the ground with his trident and caused chaotic springs, earthquakes, drownings and shipwrecks. Sailors prayed to Poseidon for a safe voyage, sometimes drowning horses as a sacrifice; in this way, according to a fragmentary papyrus, Alexander the Great paused at the Syrian seashore before the climactic battle of Issus, and resorted to prayers, "invoking Poseidon the sea-god, for whom he ordered a four-horse chariot to be cast into the waves".[67]

According to Pausanias, Poseidon was one of the caretakers of the oracle at Delphi before Olympian Apollo took it over. Apollo and Poseidon worked closely in many realms: in colonization, for example, Delphic Apollo provided the authorization to go out and settle, while Poseidon watched over the colonists on their way, and provided the lustral water for the foundation-sacrifice. At one time Delphi belonged to him in common with Ge, but Apollo gave him the psychopompeion Kalaureia as a compensation for it.[11][68]

Xenophon's Anabasis describes a group of Spartan soldiers in 400–399 BC singing to Poseidon a paean—a kind of hymn normally sung for Apollo. Like Dionysus, who inflamed the maenads, Poseidon also caused certain forms of mental disturbance. A Hippocratic text of ca 400 BC, On the Sacred Disease[69] says that he was blamed for certain types of epilepsy.

Poseidon is still worshipped today in modern Hellenic religion, among other Greek gods. The worship of Greek gods has been recognized by the Greek government since 2017.[70][71]

Epithets and attributes

Poseidon Epoptes

Poseidon had a variety of roles, duties and attributes. He is a separate deity from the oldest Greek god of the sea Pontus. In Athens his name is superimposed οn the name of the non-Greek god Erechtheus Ἑρεχθεύς (Poseidon Erechtheus).[72][73] In the Iliad, he is the lord of the sea and his golden palace is built in Aegai, in the depth of the sea.[74] His significance is indicated by his titles Eurykreion (Εὐρυκρείων) "wide-ruling", an epithet also applied to Agamemnon[75][76] and Helikonios anax (Ἑλικώνιος ἂναξ), "lord of Helicon or Helike" [77] In Helike of Achaia he was specially honoured.[78] Anax is identified in Mycenaean Greek (Linear B) as wa-na-ka, a title of Poseidon as king of the underworld. Aeschylus uses also the epithet anax [79] and Pindar the epithet Eurymedon (Εὐρυμέδων) "widely ruling".[80]

See caption

Poseidon- Neptune Detail from the "Mosaic of the Seasons", from the Roman era. Regional Archeological Museum Antonio Salinas, Palermo).

Some of the epithets (or adjectives) applied to him like Enosigaios (Ἐνοσίγαιος), Enosichthon (Ἐνοσίχθων) (Homer) and Ennosidas (Ἐννοσίδας) (Pindar), mean "earth shaker".[81] These epithets indicate his chthonic nature, and have an older evidence of use, as it is identified in Linear B, as 𐀁𐀚𐀯𐀅𐀃𐀚, E-ne-si-da-o-ne.[82] Other epithets that relate him with the earthquakes are Gaieochos (Γαιήοχος) [83] and Seisichthon (Σεισίχθων) [84] The god who causes the earthquakes is also the protector against them, and he had the epithets Themeliouchos (Θεμελιούχος) "upholding the foundations",[85] Asphaleios (Ἀσφάλειος) "securer, protector" [86] with a temple at Tainaron.[87] Pausanias describes a sanctuary of Poseidon near Sparta beside the shrine of Alcon, where he had the surname Domatites (Δωματίτης), "of the house"[88][89]

Poseidon surprises Anymone near a spring. Attic pelike in red figure, circle of the Polygnotus Painter, 440-430 BC. Archaeological Museum of Agrigento

Homer uses for Poseidon the title Kyanochaites (Κυανοχαίτης), "dark-haired, dark blue of the sea".[90][91] Epithets like Pelagios (Πελάγιος) "of the open sea",[92][93] Aegeus (Αἰγαίος), "of the high sea" [94] in the town of Aegae in Euboea, where he had a magnificent temple upon a hill,[95][96][97] Pontomedon (Ποντομέδων),[98]" lord of the sea" (Pindar, Aeschylus) and Kymothales (Κυμοθαλής), "abounding with waves",[99] indicate that Poseidon was regarded as holding sway over the sea.[100] Other epithets that relate him with the sea are, Porthmios (Πόρθμιος), "of strait, narrow sea" at Karpathos,[101] Epactaeus (Ἐπακταῖος) "god worshipped on the coast", in Samos.,[102] Alidoupos, (Ἀλίδουπος) "sea resounding".[103] The master of the sea who can cause devastating storms is also the protector of seafarers and he was given the epithet sōtēr (Σωτήρ), "savior".[54]

His symbol is the trident and he has the epithet Eutriaina (Εὐτρίαινα), "with goodly trident" (Pindar).[104] The god of the sea is also the god of fishing, and tuna was his attribute. At Lampsacus they offered fishes to Poseidon and he had the epithet phytalmios (φυτάλμιος) [105] His epithet Phykios (Φύκιος), "god of seaweeds" at Mykonos,[106] seems to be related with fishing. He had a fest where women were not allowed, with special offers also to Poseidon Temenites (Τεμενίτης) "related to an official domain ".[107] At the same day they made offers to Demeter Chloe therefore Poseidon was the promotor of vegetation. He had the epithet phytalmios (φυτάλμιος) at Myconos, Troizen, Megara and Rhodes, comparable with Ptorthios (Πτόρθιος) at Chalcis.[105][108][109]

Poseidon fighting the Giant Polybotes. Attic black-figure neck amphora by Swing Painter, 540-530 BC, ca. 540 BC–530 BC. Louvre, Paris.

Poseidon had a close association with horses. He is known under the epithet Hippios (Ἳππειος), "of a horse or horses" [110] usually in Arcadia. He had temples at Lycosura, Mantineia, Methydrium, Pheneos, Pallandion.[111] At Lycosura he is related with the cult of Despoina.[112] The modern sanctuary near Mantineia was built by Emperor Hadrian.[113] In Athens on the hill of horses there was the altar of Poseidon Hippios and Athena Hippia. The temple of Poseidon was destroyed by Antigonus when he attacked Attica.[114] He is usually the tamer of horses (Damaios,Δαμαίος at Corinth),[115] and the tender of horses Hippokourios Ἱπποκούριος) at Sparta, where he had a sanctuary near the sanctuary of Artemis Aiginea.[116][117] In some myths he is the father of horses, either by spilling his seed upon a rock or by mating with a creature who then gave birth to the first horse.[2] In Thessaly he had the title Petraios Πετραἵος, "of the rocks".[118] He hit a rock and the first horse "Skyphios" appeared.[119] He was closely related with the springs, and with the strike of his trident, he created springs. He had the epithets Krenouchos (Κρηνούχος), "ruling over springs",[120] and nymphagetes (Νυμφαγέτης) "leader of the nymphs" [121] On the Acropolis of Athens he created the saltspring Sea of Erechtheus (Ἐρεχθηίς θάλασσα).[122] Many springs like Hippocrene and Aganippe in Helikon are related with the word horse (hippos). (also Glukippe, Hyperippe). He is the father of Pegasus, whose name is derived from πηγή, (pēgē) "spring".[123]

Poseidon carrying a trident. Corinthian plate 550-525 BC, from Pentescouphia, Louvre

Epithets like Genesios Γενέσιος at Lerna[124][125] Genethlios (Γενέθλιος) "of the race or family" [126] Phratrios (Φράτριος) "of the brotherhood",[127] and Patrigenios (Πατριγένειος) [128] indicate his relation with the genealogy trees and the brotherhood.

Other epithets of Poseidon in local cults are Epoptes (Ἐπόπτης), "overseer, watcher" at Megalopolis,[129] Empylios (Ἑμπύλιος), "at the gate " at Thebes.,[130] Kronios (Κρόνιος)[131] (Pindar) and semnos (σεμνός), "august, holy" [132] (Sophocles).

Some of Poseidon's epithets are related to festivals and athletic games including racing. At Corinth the Isthmian games was an athletic and music festival in honour of the god who had the epithet Isthmios (Ἴσθμιος). At Sparta there was the race in Gaiaochō. (ἐν Γαιαόχω) [133][134] Poseidon Gaiēochos (Γαιήοχος) had a temple near the city beside an Hippodrome.[135] At Mantineia and Pallandion in Arcadia the Hippokrateia (Ιπποκράτεια) were athletic games in honour of Poseidon Hippeios (Ιππειος). At Ephesus there was a fest "Tavria" and he had the epithet Tavreios (Tαύρειος), "related with the bull".[136][134]

Festivals

Horsemen on a late Corinthean olpe by an associate of the Hippolyte Painter, ca. 575/550 BC. Louvre, Paris

Many festivals all over Greece,in the Ionic cities and in Italy were celebrated in honour of Poseidon.

Corinth: The Panhellenic Isthmian Games were celebrated in honour of Poseidon. His sanctuary is to be seen in the context of the position of Corinth controlling the sea.[2] The festival included athletic and musical competitions and horseracing. Traditionally the games were established in the Bronze Age over the dead prince Palaimon.[137]

Athens: Poseidon had a fest in the month Poseidaon. He was worshipped as the "master of the sea".[13]

Athens: Haloa was a fest of vegetation. The wine- fest Protrygaia belonged to Dionysus and to Poseidon as a god of vegetation.[64]

Mycale in Ionia: Mycale was a promontory, between Samos and Miletus. The representatives of twelve cities (dodekapolis) celebrated the Panionia (of all the Ionians), a festival of Poseidon Helikonios.[58] Traditionally the first settlers landed in this place. The temple became the meeting place of the Ionian League).[59] Homer describes the sacrifice of a bull to Poseidon, during the festival.[64]

Ephesus in Ionia. The relation of Poseidon with the bull is stronger in Ionia. The fest Tauria was celebrated in honour of Poseidon Taureios and the capbearers were called tauroi (bulls).[64]

Kalaureia: Poseidon was the patron god of the Amphictiony of Kalaureia. The festival was celebrated in honour of the god. The famous temple was the meeting place of the representatives of the members (Amphiktiones).[138]

Tainaron: The famous festival Tainaria was celebrated in honour of Poseidon. The participants were called Tainarioi.[139] The sacred sanctuary of the god was built in a cave in the Tainaron peninsula.[140] A filial cult existed in Sparta.[13]

Horseman with birds and a scrolling tendril growing from his head, perhaps Nike (Victory). Tondo of a name vase by the Rider Painter. Lakonian black-figured kylix, ca. 550–530 BC. British Museum, London

Onchestos in Boeotia. Poseidon had a famous temple praised by Homer' in the Catalogue of Ships,[60] with the surname Helikonios. It became the place of meeting of the second Boeotian league. The peculiar fest included horseracing.[13] At the beginning of the race the charioteers jumped down and made a prayer to Poseidon to protect them if the chariot would fall in the sacred grove.[10]

Sparta; Poseidon was worshipped with the surname Gaiaochos (carrying the earth or moving under the earth). There was the race Gaiaochoi and the temple was built beside an Hippodrome.[13]

Helike in Achaea: The city is mentioned in Homers Catalogue of Ships.[141] The temple and the festival of Poseidon Helikonios was Panhellenic. It was the place of meeting of the Achaean League.The city was destroyed by a tsunami in 370 BC.[61]

Poseidon and Nike (victory). Terracotta Attic amphora by the Syracuse Painter, one of the last to decorate an amphora, 470-460 BC. Metropolitan Museum of Art, Manhattan, NY

Epidauros: A fest in the month Poseidios was celebrated in honour of Poseidon. He was worshipped as the "master of the sea".[13]

Helos : The fest Pohoidaia was celebrated in honour of Poseidon. The festival included athletic games and competitions.[13]

Thuria: The fest Pohoidaia was celebrated in honour of Poseidon. It included athletic games and competitions.[13]

Mantineia in Arcadia: Poseidon was worshipped with the surname Hippios (of the horse). The fest included the athletic games Hippokrateia. The temple was holy and the entrance into the cella was not allowed.[13]

Pallandion in Arcadia : Poseidon had the epithet Hippios (of the horse) and the fest included the athletic games Hippokrateia.[13]

Thronium: Thronium was the chief city of Ancient Locris and is mentioned by Homer in the Catalogue of Ships.[142] The name of a month in the city was Hippios.[143]

Lesbos: A festival in the month Poseidios was celebrated in honour of Poseidon. He was worshipped as the "master of the sea".[13]

Myconos: In a fest he was worshipped as a god of fishing and women were not allowed. Chloe (Demeter) received offerings in the same fest,indicating that Poseidon was also god of vegetation.[64]

Tinos: A great fest called Poseidonia was celebrated in honour of Poseidon. The temple included great banquet halls, indicating the large number of the partiipants.[144] Poseidon was worhipped as a healer-god.[64]

Temples of Poseidon

Archaic Temple of Poseidon at Isthmia, Greece (Assumed reconstruction)

The Corinthians are considered to be the inventors of the Doric order. However Corinth was completely destroyed and rebuilt and there is not sufficient evidence for the existence of earliest Doric Greek temples in the city.[145] A building constructed in early 7th century BC c.690-650 BC at Isthmia near Corinth which was later dedicated to Poseidon, is considered a pioneering building featuring Doric architecture.[146] It seems that the first temple with pure Doric elements was built with the aid of Corinthians at Thermon in Aetolia in the middle of 7th century BC century. c.640-630 BC. It was a peripteral narrow wooden structure dedicated to Apollo,[147] It measured 12.13 X38.23 m at the stylobate and the number of pteron columns was 5X15.[148]

In the earlier temples the peripteral colonnade is treated with a freedom unknown to later Doric architects. This is in part an especially western feature (in Italy) because the hexastyle sceme was adopted [149] as in the temple of Poseidon at Taranto and the second temple of Hera at Paestum (traditionally named temple of Poseidon). In the earlier temples where the number of the columns in the porch is odd, so are the columns of the pteron facade. In such temples the side ptera are approximately the width of one or two intercolumniations.[150] In the hexastyle scheme like the temple of Poseidon at Sounion, there are normally two or four columns in the porch and the side ptera are approximately the width of one intercolumniation.[151] In Doric early work the distance between column and column differs on the fronts and on the flanks [152] and this can be observed in the temple of Poseidon at Kalaureia and in Basilica at Paestum. After the 6th century the rule in Doric is an approximate equality of intercolumniations [152] and it can be observed in the temple of Poseidon at Sounion, where there is a slight difference.

Isthmia. The temple dedicated later to the god Poseidon was probably built in early 7th century BC c.690-650 BC in the city Isthmia near Corinth and it had a wooden peristyle. The building was completely destroyed in 470 BC and it seems that it was one of the pioneering buildings featuring Doric architecture.[146] The ground plan showed a temple that was of epic proportions for its time and of a layout that was almost entirely new,[153] however there was no evidence for the employment of the Doric style as it was suggested [154]

Plan of the second temple of Hera, Paestum (traditionally temple of Poseidon)

Paestum , on the west coast of Italy near Naples. The Greek name of the city was Poseidonia. The Doric temple was built in early 6th century BC and it was believed that it was a temple of Poseidon. Traditionally this name is associated with the 5th century BC temple at Paestum, however recent excavations indicate that both temples were dedicated to Hera. The so called Basilica measured 24,5 X54,3 m at the stylobate and the number of pteron columns was 9x18.[155] The temple is wider than most Greek temples it had two doors. This may indicate a dual dedication of the temple.[156]

A Doric temple the so called temple of Poseidon was built in the first half of the 5th century BC and is usually placed later than Parthenon. The temple measured 24,3 X 60,00 m at the stylobate.It was an hexastyle structure and the number of pteron columns was 6X14.[157] The temple was also used to worship Zeus and another deity, whose identity is unknown.

Sounionplan-Temple of Poseidon

Taranto, a city of Magna Graecia in Italy. Τhe temple of Poseidon was a perpiteral Doric temple, however its exact plan cannot be outlined. It was probably built in 6th century BC and it seems that the number of pteron columns was 6X13. The interval of the remaining columns is 3.72 m, indicating that the maximum dimensions of the temple at the stylobate could be 22,32X 47,46 m.

Sounion in Attica. The first temple of Poseidon (formerly called temple of Athena) was built in 490 BC and it was destroyed by the Persians before completion. It measured 13,12 X30,34 m at the stylobate and the number of pteron columns was 6X13. There is a slight difference between the front and back intercolumniations and those of the flanks. There was probably a double row of inner columns. (close wall, engaged). The cella with porches and adyta measured c.9.00 X21,20m [158]

The second temple was built in 425 BC and it was modelled on its predecessor. It measured 13.48 X 31.15 m at the stylobate and the number of pteron columns was 6X13. An Ionic frieze carried across pteron and continued round interior of each end of pteron.[159] The cella with porches and adyta measured c.9.00 X21,20m.[158] The temple probably contained, at one end facing the entrance, a colossal, bronze statue of Poseidon.[160]

Architectural Terracotta Sanctuary of Poseidon Kalaureia

Kalaureia ,an island close to the coast of Troezen in the Peloponnese , part of the modern island-pair Poros. Early roof tiles from c.650 BC suggest the existence of a precursor to the Late Archaic temple of Poseidon. This Doric temple was probably built in the middle of the 6th century BC, constructed mainly of poros limestone. It measured 14,50 X27,00 m at the stylobate and the number of the pteron columns was 6X12. Both front and back intercolumniations were wider than those on the flanks. The building was surrounded by a low wall with the main entrance on the east side.[161]

Temple of Poseidon, Hermione

Hermione in Argolis.The most remarkable temple in the time of Pausanias was the temple of Poseidon.[162] The temple was built in the Late archaic-Early classical period, in late 6th century BC. It was completely destroyed and its foundations at the peninsula of Bisti (Poseidio) indicate that the temple measured approximately 15,00 X30,00 m at the stylobate.[163]

Tainaron .The sacred sanctuary of Poseidon was built in a cave at the Tainaron peninsula. The path to the interior, carved into the rock, was preparing him who wanted to get into the psychopompeion. It also functioned as a necromancy and oneiromancy temple. The temple was also established as a place for persecuted who fled there for protection.[140]

Tinos ,an island of Cyclades. The temple of Poseidon and Amphitrite was built near a beach of the island, in the 4th century BC (Hellenistic period). It was a peripteral Doric temple, which was reconstructed in the 3rd century BC. The temple was made of local marble and had some representations of the god's symbols, such as dolphins and the trident.[164]

Mythology

Birth

Poseidon-Neptune and triumphal chariot with a pair of sea-horses (Hippocamps). Mosaic, 3rd century. Sousse Archaeological Museum, Medina, Tunesia

In the standard version, Poseidon was born to the Titans Cronus and Rhea, the fifth child out of six, born after Hestia, Demeter, Hera and Hades in that order.[165] Because Poseidon's father was afraid that one of his children would overthrow him like he had done to his own father, Cronus devoured each infant as soon as they were born. Poseidon was the last one to suffer this fate before Rhea decided to deceive Cronus and whisk the sixth child, Zeus, away to safety, after offering Cronus a rock wrapped in a blanket to eat.[166] Once Zeus was grown, he gave his father a powerful emetic that made him gorge up the children he had eaten. The five children emerged from their father's belly in reverse order, making Poseidon both the second youngest child and the second oldest at the same time. Armed with a trident forged for him by the Cyclopes, Poseidon with his siblings and other divine allies defeated the Titans and became rulers in their place.[167] According to Homer and Apollodorus, Zeus, Poseidon and the third brother Hades then divided the world between them by drawing lots; Zeus got the sky, Poseidon the sea, and Hades the Underworld.[168]

Andrea Doria as Neptune, by Angelo Bronzino .1540-1530, Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan

In a rarer - and later- version, Poseidon avoided being devoured by his father as his mother Rhea saved him in the same manner she did Zeus, by offering Cronus a foal instead, claiming she had given birth to a horse instead of a god, while she had actually laid the child in a flock.[169] Rhea entrusted her infant to a spring nymph. When Cronus demanded the child, the nymph Arne[170] denied having him, and her spring thereafter was called Arne (which bears resemblance to the Greek word for 'deny').[171]

In another tale, Rhea gave Poseidon to the Telchines, ancient inhabitants of the island of Rhodes;[172] Capheira, an Oceanid nymph, became the young god's nurse.[173] As Poseidon grew, he fell in love with Halia, the beautiful sister of the Telchines, and fathered six sons and one daughter, Rhodos, on her.[174][173] By that time Aphrodite, the goddess of love, had been born and risen from the sea, and attempted to make a stop at Rhodes on her way to Cyprus. Poseidon and Halia's sons denied her hospitality, so Aphrodite cursed them to fall in love and rape Halia. After they had done so, Poseidon made them sink below the sea.[174]

In Homer's Odyssey, Poseidon has a home in Aegae.[175]

City patronage

Foundation of Athens

Poseidon (right) and Athena (identified with inscriptions). Black-figure vaise painting by Amasis Painter, 540 BC. BnF Museum (Cabinet des médailles), Paris

Athena became the patron goddess of the city of Athens after a competition with Poseidon. Yet Poseidon remained a numinous presence on the Acropolis in the form of his surrogate, Erechtheus.[2] At the dissolution festival at the end of the year in the Athenian calendar, the Skira, the priests of Athena and the priest of Poseidon would process under canopies to Eleusis.[176] They agreed that each would give the Athenians one gift and the Athenians would choose whichever gift they preferred. Poseidon struck the ground with his trident and a spring sprang up; the water was salty and not very useful, whereas Athena offered them an olive tree.

The Athenians or their king, Cecrops, accepted the olive tree and along with it Athena as their patron, for the olive tree brought wood, oil and food. After the fight, infuriated at his loss, Poseidon sent a monstrous flood to the Attic Plain, to punish the Athenians for not choosing him. The depression made by Poseidon's trident and filled with salt water was surrounded by the northern hall of the Erechtheum, remaining open to the air.

Athena and Poseidon, Faliscan red-figure volute-krater, by Nazzano Painter, 360 BC. Louvre, Paris.

Burkert noted :"In cult, Poseidon was identified with Erechtheus" and "the myth turns this into a temporal-causal sequence: in his anger at losing, Poseidon led his son Eumolpus against Athens and killed Erectheus."[9]

It was also said that Poseidon in his anger over his defeat sent one of his sons, Halirrhothius, to cut down Athena's tree gift. But as Halirrhothius swung his axe, he missed his aim and it fell in himself, killing him instantly. Poseidon in fury accused Ares of murder, and the matter was eventually settled on the Areopagus ("hill of Ares") in favour of Ares, which was thereafter named after the event.[177][178] In other versions, Halirrhothius raped Alcippe, Ares's daughter, so Ares slew him. Poseidon was enraged over the murder of his son, and Ares was thus held in hold, which eventually acquitted him.[179]

The contest of Athena and Poseidon was the subject of the reliefs on the western pediment of the Parthenon, the first sight that greeted the arriving visitor.

This myth is construed by Robert Graves and others as reflecting a clash between the inhabitants during Mycenaean times and newer immigrants. Athens at its height was a significant sea power, at one point defeating the Persian fleet at Salamis Island in a sea battle.

Others

Poseidon und Amymone, house of Dionysus. Paphos Archaeological Park, Paphos, Cyprus

The Corinthians had a similar story to the foundations of Athens, about their own city Corinth. According to the myth, Helios and Poseidon clashed, both desiring to make the city their own. Their dispute was brought to one of the Hecatoncheires, Briareos, an elder god, who was thus tasked to settle the fight between the two gods. Briareus decided to award the Acrocorinth to Helios, while to Poseidon he gave the isthmus of Corinth.[180] In this tale, Helios and Poseidon are supposed to represent fire versus water.[181] Helios, as the sun god, received the area that is closest to the sky, while Poseidon, who is the sea god, got the isthmus by the sea.[182]

At another time, Poseidon came to an agreement with another goddess, Leto, that he would give her the island of Delos in exchange for the island of Calauria; he also exchanged Delphi for Taenarum with Apollo. A temple of Poseidon stood at Calauria during ancient times.[183] Poseidon also came to dispute with his sister Hera over the city of Argos. A local king was chosen to settle the matter, Phoroneus, and he decided to award the city to Hera, who then became its patroness.[184] Poseidon was enraged, and sent a drought to plague the city. One day, as an Argive woman named Amymone went out in search of water, came upon a satyr who tried to rape her. Amymone prayed to Poseidon for help, and he scared the satyr away with his trident.[185] After Poseidon rescued Amymone from the lecherous satyr he fathered a child on her, Nauplius.[186]

Walls of Troy

Poseidon and Apollo, having offended Zeus by their rebellion in Hera's scheme, were temporarily stripped of their divine authority and sent to serve King Laomedon of Troy. He had them build huge walls around the city and promised to reward them with his immortal horses, a promise he then refused to fulfill. In vengeance, before the Trojan War, Poseidon sent a sea monster to attack Troy. The monster was later killed by Heracles.[187]

Theseus

Poseidon and Theseus (on the left). Storage jar 470BC. J. Paul Getty Museum, Malibu, California

Poseidon fathered the hero Theseus with the Troezenian princess Aethra. Theseus was also said to be the son of Aegeus, the king of Athens, who slept with Aethra on the very same night. Thus Theseus's origins included both the human and the divine element.[188][189]

Meanwhile in Crete, Zeus's son Minos asked for Poseidon's help in order to certify his claim on the throne of Crete. Poseidon offered Minos a splendid white bull, with the understanding that he was to sacrifice the bull to Poseidon later. The Cretans were so impressed with the bull and the divine sign itself that Minos was declared king of Crete.[190][191] But wishing to keep the beautiful animal for himself, Minos instead sacrificed an ordinary bull to the sea-god instead of the agreed upon one.[191]

Poseidon, enraged, caused Minos's wife, Pasiphae, to fall in love with the bull; their coupling produced the Minotaur, a half-bull half-human creature who fed on human flesh.[190][191] Minos concealed him within the labyrinth built by Daedalus, and fed to him Athenian men and women he forced Aegeus to sent him over.[166]

Once Theseus was grown up and recognized by his father Aegeus in Athens, he decided to end the bloody tax Athens had to pay to Crete once and for all, and volunteered to set sail to Crete along with the other Athenian youths who had been chosen to be devoured by the Minotaur.[192]

Once he arrived in Crete, Minos insulted Theseus and insisted he was no son of Poseidon; to demonstrate so, he threw his own ring in to the sea, and commanded Theseus to retrieve it, expecting he would not be able to do so.[193] Theseus immediately dove in after it.

Pasiphae seated on a throne receives the wooden cow from Daidalos. (On the left :Icarus) Eros plays with the head of the crafted cow. Roman Mosaic, from Zeugma, Commagene. Zeugma Mosaic Museum, Gaziantep, Turkey

Dolphins then came as guides and escorted him to the halls of Poseidon and Amphitrite's palace, where he was warmly welcomed.[194] He received the ring, and in addition a purple wedding cloak and a crown from Amphitrite, to prove his words. Theseus then emerged from the sea and gave the ring to Minos.[195] Theseus killed the Minotaur, and in time succeeded his father Aegeus as king of Athens. By an Amazon he had a son, Hippolytus, while his wife Phaedra (Minos' daughter) gave him two sons.

At some point, Poseidon promised three favours to Theseus, and he called upon Poseidon to fulfill one of those when Phaedra falsely accused Hippolytus of forcing himself on her.[196] Theseus, not knowing the truth, asked his father to destroy Hippolytus; Poseidon granted his son's wish, and as Hippolytus was driving by the sea, Poseidon sent a terrifying sea monster to spook the man's horses, which then dragged him to his death.[196][197]

Consort, lovers, victims and children

Sea thiasos depicting the wedding of Poseidon and Amphitrite, from the Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus in the Field of Mars, bas-relief, Roman Republic, 2nd century BC

Poseidon was said to have had many lovers of both sexes. His consort was Amphitrite, a nymph and ancient sea-goddess, daughter of Nereus and Doris. In one account, attributed to Eratosthenes, Poseidon wished to wed Amphitrite, but she fled from him and hid with Atlas. Poseidon sent out many to find her, and it was a dolphin who tracked her down. The dolphin persuaded Amphitrite to accept Poseidon as her husband, and eventually took charge of their wedding. Poseidon then put him among the stars as a reward for his good services.[198] Oppian says that the dolphin betrayed Amphitrite's whereabouts to Poseidon, and he carried off Amphitrite against her will to marry her.[199] Together they had a son named Triton, a merman.[200] Poseidon was the father of many heroes. He is thought to have fathered the famed Theseus. Poseidon also had an affair with Alope, his granddaughter through Cercyon, his son and King of Eleusis, begetting the Attic hero Hippothoon. Cercyon had his daughter buried alive but Poseidon turned her into the spring, Alope, near Eleusis.[201]

A mortal woman named Cleito once lived on an isolated island; Poseidon fell in love with the human mortal and created a dwelling sanctuary at the top of a hill near the middle of the island and surrounded the dwelling with rings of water and land to protect her. She gave birth to five sets of twin boys; the firstborn, Atlas, became the first ruler of Atlantis.[6][7][8] Alebion and Bergion and Otos and Ephialtae (the giants).

Poseidon-Neptune and Amphitrite. Roman Mosaic 1st century BC. House of Neptune, Herculanum. Metropolitan City of Naples

Not all of Poseidon's children were human. His other children include Polyphemus (the Cyclops) and, finally, Amycus was the son of Poseidon and the Bithynian nymph Melia.[202] The philosopher Plato was held by his fellow ancient Greeks to have traced his descent to the sea-God Poseidon through his father Ariston and his mythic predecessors the demigod kings Codrus and Melanthus.[203][204]

Poseidon also took the young Nerites, the son of Nereus and Doris (and thus brother to Amphitrite) as a lover. Nerites was also Poseidon's charioteer, and impressed all marine creatures with his speed. But one day the sun god, Helios, turned Nerites into a shellfish. Aelian, who recorded this tale as told by mariners, says it is not clear why Helios did this, but theorizes he might have been offended somehow, or that he and Poseidon were rivals in love, and Helios wanted Nerites to travel among the constellations instead of the sea-monsters. From the love between Poseidon and Nerites was born Anteros, mutual love.[205]

Other male lovers included Pelops and Patroclus.[206]

Rape and assault victims

Bellerehron spears Chimera from underneath, while Pegasus strikes the monster with his hooves. Laconian Black Figure Kylix attributed to Boreads Painter, 570–565 B.C. J. Paul Getty Museum Malibu ,California.

A mortal woman named Tyro was married to Cretheus (with whom she had one son, Aeson), but loved Enipeus, a river god. She pursued Enipeus, who refused her advances. One day, Poseidon, filled with lust for Tyro, disguised himself as Enipeus, and from their union were born the heroes Pelias and Neleus, twin boys.[207]

In an archaic myth, Poseidon once pursued Demeter. She spurned his advances, turning herself into a mare so that she could hide in a herd of horses; he saw through the deception and became a stallion, captured and raped her.[208] Their child was a horse, Arion, which was capable of human speech.[209] According to Hesiod's Theogony, Poseidon "lay down in a soft meadow among spring flowers" with the Gorgon Medusa and two offspring, the winged horse Pegasus and the warrior Chrysaor, were born when the hero Perseus cut off Medusa's head.[210]

Lattanzio Gambara (c. 1530-Brescia 1574) - Poseidon-Neptune and Caenis

Ovid however says that Medusa was originally a very beautiful maiden whom Poseidon raped inside the temple of Athena. Athena, furious over the sacrilege, changed the beautiful girl into a monster.[211] Elsewhere in the Metamorphoses, Ovid says that Poseidon seduced Medusa in the form of a bird.[212]

One day, Poseidon spotted Caenis walking by the seashore, caught her and raped her. Having enjoyed her greatly, he offered her a wish, any wish. Traumatized, Caenis wished to be transformed into a man, so that she would never experience assault again. Poseidon fulfilled her request and changed her into a male warrior, who then took the name Caeneus.[213]

Another time Poseidon once fell in love with a Phocian woman, Corone, the daughter of Coronaeus as she was walking along the shore. He attempted to court her, but she rejected him, and ran away. Poseidon then chased her down with the aim to rape her. Athena, witnessing all that, took pity in the girl and changed her into a crow.[214]

When Zeus fell in love and pursued the goddess Asteria, she transformed into a quail and flung herself into the sea to escape being raped by him. Poseidon then, equally rapacious, picked up the chase where Zeus had left it and chased Asteria with the aim to force himself on her, so Asteria had to transform for a second time to save herself, this time into a small rocky island named Delos.[215]

List of offspring and their mothers

Offspring Mother

Genealogy

Poseidon's family tree [346]

In literature and art

Poseidon and Amphitryte - Joseph Kuhn-Régnier

In Greek art, Poseidon rides a chariot that was pulled by a hippocampus or by horses that could ride on the sea. He was associated with dolphins and three-pronged fish spears (tridents). He lived in a palace on the ocean floor, made of coral and gems.

In the Iliad, Poseidon favors the Greeks, and on several occasion takes an active part in the battle against the Trojan forces. However, in Book XX he rescues Aeneas after the Trojan prince is laid low by Achilles.

In the Odyssey, Poseidon is notable for his hatred of Odysseus who blinded the god's son, the Cyclops Polyphemus. The enmity of Poseidon prevents Odysseus's return home to Ithaca for many years. Odysseus is even told, notwithstanding his ultimate safe return, that to placate the wrath of Poseidon will require one more voyage on his part.

Neptune and Amphitrite by Jacob de Gheyn II (late 1500s)

In the Aeneid, Neptune is still resentful of the wandering Trojans, but is not as vindictive as Juno, and in Book I he rescues the Trojan fleet from the goddess's attempts to wreck it, although his primary motivation for doing this is his annoyance at Juno's having intruded into his domain.

A hymn to Poseidon included among the Homeric Hymns is a brief invocation, a seven-line introduction that addresses the god as both "mover of the earth and barren sea, god of the deep who is also lord of Mount Helicon and wide Aegae,[352] and specifies his twofold nature as an Olympian: "a tamer of horses and a saviour of ships".

In modern culture

Poseidon as portrayed in the 1963 film Jason and the Argonauts

Due to his status as a Greek god, Poseidon has made multiple appearances in modern and popular culture.

Books

Poseidon has appeared in modern literature, most notably in the Percy Jackson & the Olympians series, in which he plays a role as the titular character's father. Poseidon appears in Gareth Hinds' 2010 version of The Odyssey.[353]

Webcomics

Poseidon appeared in Rachel Smythe's 2018 comic Lore Olympus.[354][355]

Films and television

Poseidon has been very popular especially in god-related films. John Putch directed the 2005 film The Poseidon Adventure. Wolfgang Petersen also film adapted Paul Gallico's novel and directed the 2006 film Poseidon.[356] Poseidon appeared in the 1963 film Jason and the Argonauts.[357]

Poseidon appears in Percy Jackson & the Olympians: The Lightning Thief and Percy Jackson: Sea of Monsters, the two film adaptations of the book series.[358][359] He also appears in the ABC television series Once Upon a Time as a supporting character in the second half of season four, played by Ernie Hudson.[360] In this version, Poseidon is portrayed as the father of the Sea Witch Ursula.

Video games

Poseidon has made multiple appearances in video games, such as in God of War 3 by Sony. In the game, Poseidon appears as a boss for the player to defeat.[361] He also appears in Smite as a playable character.[362] In the video game Hades, he is a character who will grant "boons".[363]

COINS

 Hammered coinage is the most common form of coins produced since the invention of coins in the first millennium BC until the early modern period of ca. the 15th–17th centuries, contrasting to the very rare cast coinage and the later developed milled coinage.

Hammered coins were produced by placing a blank piece of metal (a planchet or flan) of the correct weight between two dies, and then striking the upper die with a hammer to produce the required image on both sides. The planchet was usually cast from a mold. The bottom die (sometimes called the anvil die) was usually counter sunk in a log or other sturdy surface and was called a pile. One of the minters held the die for the other side (called the trussel), in his hand while it was struck either by himself or an assistant.

In later history, in order to increase the production of coins, hammered coins were sometimes produced from strips of metal of the correct thickness, from which the coins were subsequently cut out. Both methods of producing hammered coins meant that it was difficult to produce coins of a regular diameter. Coins were liable to suffer from "clipping" where unscrupulous people would remove slivers of precious metal since it was difficult to determine the correct diameter of the coin.

Coins were also vulnerable to "sweating," which is when silver coins would be placed in a bag that would be vigorously shaken. This would produce silver dust, which could later be removed from the bag.

Milled coins

The ability to fashion coins from machines (Milled coins) caused hammered coins to gradually become obsolete during the 17th century. Interestingly, they were still made in Venice until the 1770s. France became the first country to adopt a full machine-made coin in 1643.

In England, the first non-hammered coins were produced in the reign of Queen Elizabeth I in the 1560s, but while machine-produced coins were experimentally produced at intervals over the next century, the production of hammered coins did not finally end until 1662.

Cast coins

An alternative method of producing early coins, particularly found in Asia, especially in China, was to cast coins using molds. This method of coin production continued in China into the nineteenth century. Up to a couple of dozen coins could be produced at one time from a single mold, when a 'tree' of coins (which often contained features such as a square hole in the centre) would be produced and the individual coins (called cash) would then be broken off.

Coins are pieces of hard material used primarily as a medium of exchange or legal tender. They are standardized in weight, and produced in large quantities at a mint in order to facilitate trade. They are most often issued by a government.

Coins are usually metal or alloy metal, or sometimes made of synthetic materials. They are usually disc shaped. Coins made of valuable metal are stored in large quantities as bullion coins. Other coins are used as money in everyday transactions, circulating alongside banknotes: these coins are usually worth less than banknotes: usually the highest value coin in circulation (i.e. excluding bullion coins) is worth less than the lowest-value note. In the last hundred years, the face value of circulation coins has occasionally been lower than the value of the metal they contain, for example due to inflation. If the difference becomes significant, the issuing authority may decide to withdraw these coins from circulation, or the general public may decide to melt the coins down or hoard them (see Gresham's law).

Exceptions to the rule of face value being higher than content value also occur for some bullion coins made of silver or gold (and, rarely, other metals, such as platinum or palladium), intended for collectors or investors in precious metals. Examples of modern gold collector/investor coins include the British sovereign minted by the United Kingdom, the American Gold Eagle minted by the United States, the Canadian Gold Maple Leaf minted by Canada, and the Krugerrand, minted by South Africa. The American Gold Eagle has a face value of US$50, and the Canadian Gold Maple Leaf coins also have nominal (purely symbolic) face values (e.g. C$50 for 1 oz.); but the Krugerrand does not.

Historically, a great quantity of coinage metals (including alloys) and other materials (e.g. porcelain) have been used to produce coins for circulation, collection, and metal investment: bullion coins often serve as more convenient stores of assured metal quantity and purity than other bullion.[1] Today, the term coin can also be used in reference to digital currencies which are not issued by a state. As of 2013, examples include BitCoin and LiteCoin, among others.

As coins have long been used as money, in some languages the same word is used for "coin" and "currency".

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 Numismatics portalicon Money portal

A coin is a small object, usually round and flat, used primarily as a medium of exchange or legal tender. They are standardized in weight, and produced in large quantities at a mint in order to facilitate trade. They are most often issued by a government. Coins often have images, numerals, or text on them. Obverse and its opposite, reverse, refer to the two flat faces of coins and medals. In this usage, obverse means the front face of the object and reverse means the back face. The obverse of a coin is commonly called heads, because it often depicts the head of a prominent person, and the reverse is known as tails.

Coins are generally made of metal or an alloy, or sometimes of man-made materials. They are usually disc shaped. Coins made of valuable metal are stored in large quantities as bullion coins. Other coins are used as money in everyday transactions, circulating alongside banknotes. Usually, the highest value coin in circulation (excluding bullion coins) is worth less than the lowest-value note. In the last hundred years, the face value of circulated coins has occasionally been lower than the value of the metal they contain, primarily due to inflation. If the difference becomes significant, the issuing authority may decide to withdraw these coins from circulation, possibly issuing new equivalents with a different composition, or the public may decide to melt the coins down or hoard them (see Gresham's law).

Exceptions to the rule of face value being higher than content value also occur for some bullion coins made of copper, silver, or gold (and rarely other metals, such as platinum or palladium), intended for collectors or investors in precious metals. Examples of modern gold collector/investor coins include the British sovereign minted by the United Kingdom, the American Gold Eagle minted by the United States, the Canadian Gold Maple Leaf minted by Canada, and the Krugerrand, minted by South Africa. While the Eagle, and Sovereign coins have nominal (purely symbolic) face values, the Krugerrand does not.

Historically, a considerable variety of coinage metals (including alloys) and other materials (e.g. porcelain) have been used to produce coins for circulation, collection, and metal investment: bullion coins often serve as more convenient stores of assured metal quantity and purity than other bullion.

Ancient History

Bullion and unmarked metals

An oxhide ingot from Crete. Late Bronze Age metal ingots were given standard shapes, such as the shape of an "ox-hide", suggesting that they represented standardized values.

Metal ingots, silver bullion or unmarked bars were probably in use for exchange among many of the civilizations that mastered metallurgy. The weight and purity of bullion would be the key determinant of value. In the Achaemenid Empire in the early 6th century BC, coinage was yet unknown. The barter system, as well as silver bullion were used instead for trade.The practice of using silver bars for currency also seems to have been current in Central Asia from the 6th century BC. Coins were an evolution of "currency" systems of the Late Bronze Age, where standard-sized ingots, and tokens such as knife money, were used to store and transfer value. Phoenician metal ingots had to be stamped with the current ruler to guarantee their worth and value, which is probably how stamping busts and designs began.

Tongbei in Bronze Age China (c. 1100 BC)

In the late Chinese Bronze Age, standardized cast tokens were made, such as those discovered in a tomb near Anyang.[4][5] These were replicas in bronze of earlier Chinese currency, cowrie shells, so they were named Bronze Shell.[6]

China Henan Coin Factory (c. 640 – 550 BC)

The worlds oldest coin factory is excavated in the ancient city Guanzhuang in Henan province in China. The factory produced shovel-shaped bronze coins between 640 B.C. and 550 B.C., which is the oldest securely dated minting site.

Iron Age

Lydian and Ionian electrum coins (c. 600 BC)

Coin of Alyattes of Lydia, c. 620/10-564/53 BC.

The earliest inscribed coinage: electrum coin of Phanes from Ephesus, 625–600 BC. Obverse: Stag grazing right, ΦΑΝΕΩΣ (retrograde). Reverse: Two incuse punches, each with raised intersecting lines.[9]

The earliest coins are mostly associated with Iron Age Anatolia of the late 7th century BC, and especially with the kingdom of Lydia.[10] Early electrum coins (an alluvial alloy of gold and silver, varying wildly in proportion, and usually about 40–55% gold) were not standardized in weight, and in their earliest stage may have been ritual objects, such as badges or medals, issued by priests.[11] The unpredictability of the composition of naturally occurring electrum implied that it had a variable value, which greatly hampered its development.[12]

Most of the early Lydian coins include no writing ("myth" or "inscription"), only an image of a symbolic animal. Therefore, the dating of these coins relies primarily on archaeological evidence, with the most commonly cited evidence coming from excavations at the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, also called the Ephesian Artemision (which would later evolve into one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World). This was the site of the earliest known deposit of electrum coins.[9] Anatolian Artemis was the Πὀτνια Θηρῶν (Potnia Thêrôn, "Mistress of Animals"), whose symbol was the stag. It took some time before ancient coins were used for commerce and trade[citation needed]. Even the smallest-denomination electrum coins, perhaps worth about a day's subsistence, would have been too valuable for buying a loaf of bread.[13] Maybe the first coins to be used for retailing on a large-scale basis were likely small silver fractions, Hemiobol, Ancient Greek coinage minted by the Ionian Greeks in the late sixth century BC.[14]

In contrast Herodotus mentioned the innovation made by the Lydians:[12]

"So far as we have any knowledge, they [the Lydians] were the first people to introduce the use of gold and silver coins, and the first who sold goods by retail"

— Herodotus, I94[12]

And both Aristotle (fr. 611,37, ed. V. Rose) and Pollux (Onamastikon IX.83), mention that the first issuer of coinage was Hermodike/Demodike of Cyme.[15] Cyme was a city in Aeolia, nearby Lydia.

"Another example of local pride is the dispute about coinage, whether the first one to strike it was Pheidon of Argos, or Demodike of Kyme (who was wife of Midas the Phrygian and daughter of King Agammemnon of Kyme), or Erichthonios and Lycos of Athens, or the Lydians (as Xenophanes says) or the Naxians (as Anglosthenes thought)"

— Julius Pollux, Onamastikon IX.83[15]

Many early Lydian and Greek coins were minted under the authority of private individuals and are thus more akin to tokens or badges than to modern coins,[16] though due to their numbers it is evident that some were official state issues. The earliest inscribed coins are those of Phanes, dated to 625–600 BC from Ephesus in Ionia, with the legend ΦΑΕΝΟΣ ΕΜΙ ΣHΜΑ (or similar) (“I am the badge/sign/mark of Phanes/light”) or just bearing the name ΦΑΝΕΟΣ (“of Phanes”).

The first electrum coins issued by a monarch are those minted by king Alyattes of Lydia (died c. 560 BC), for which reason this king is sometimes mentioned as the originator of coinage.

Croesus: Pure gold and silver coins

Croeseids

Gold Croeseid, minted by King Croesus, c. 561–546 BC. (10.7 grams, Sardis mint)

Silver Croeseid, minted by King Croesus, c. 560–546 BC (10.7 grams, Sardis mint)

The gold and silver Croeseids formed the world's first bimetallic monetary system, c. 550 BC.[12]

The successor of Alyattes, king Croesus (r. c. 560–546 BC), became associated with great wealth in Greek historiography. He is credited with issuing the Croeseid, the first true gold coins with a standardized purity for general circulation.[12] and the world's first bimetallic monetary system c. 550 BC.[12]

Coins spread rapidly in the 6th and 5th centuries BC, leading to the development of Ancient Greek coinage and Achaemenid coinage, and further to Illyrian coinage.[18]

Achaemenid coinage (546–330 BC)

Main article: Achaemenid coinage

The first type of Siglos (Type I: "King with bow and arrows", upper body of the king only), from the time of Darius I, c. 520–505 BC

Daric gold coin, c. 490 BC; one of the most successful of Antiquity.

When Cyrus the Great (550–530 BC) came to power, coinage was unfamiliar in his realm. Barter and to some extent silver bullion was used instead for trade.[2] The practice of using silver bars for currency also seems to have been current in Central Asia from the 6th century.[3]

Cyrus the Great introduced coins to the Persian Empire after 546 BC, following his conquest of Lydia and the defeat of its king Croesus, who had put in place the first coinage in history. With his conquest of Lydia, Cyrus acquired a region in which coinage was invented, developed through advanced metallurgy, and had already been in circulation for about 50 years, making the Lydian Kingdom one of the leading trade powers of the time.[2] It seems Cyrus initially adopted the Lydian coinage as such, and continued to strike Lydia's lion-and-bull coinage.[2]

Original coins of the Achaemenid Empire were issued from 520 BC – 450 BC to 330 BC. The Persian Daric was the first truly Achaemenid gold coin which, along with a similar silver coin, the Siglos, represented the bimetallic monetary standard of the Achaemenid Persian Empire.

Coinage of Southern Asia under the Achaemenid Empire

See also: Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley and Coinage of India

A siglos found in the Kabul valley, 5th century BC. Coins of this type were also found in the Bhir Mound hoard.

The Achaemenid Empire already reached the doors of India during the original expansion of Cyrus the Great, and the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley is dated to c. 515 BC under Darius I.[2] An Achaemenid administration was established in the area. The Kabul hoard, also called the Chaman Hazouri hoard,[22] is a coin hoard discovered in the vicinity of Kabul, Afghanistan, containing numerous Achaemenid coins as well as many Greek coins from the 5th and 4th centuries BC.[21] The deposit of the hoard is dated to the Achaemenid period, in approximately 380 BC.[23] The hoard also contained many locally produced silver coins, minted by local authorities under Achaemenid rule. Several of these issues follow the "western designs" of the facing bull heads, a stag, or Persian column capitals on the obverse, and incuse punch on the reverse.

According to numismatist Joe Cribb, these finds suggest that the idea of coinage and the use of punch-marked techniques was introduced to India from the Achaemenid Empire during the 4th century BC.[26] More Achaemenid coins were also found in Pushkalavati and in Bhir Mound.

Punch-marked coin minted in the Kabul Valley under Achaemenid administration, c. 500–380 BC, or c. 350 BC.[28][21]

Gandharan "bent-bar" punch-marked coin minted under Achaemenid administration, of the type found in large quantities in the Chaman Hazouri and the Bhir Mound hoards.

Gandharan "bent-bar" punch-marked coin minted under Achaemenid administration, of the type found in large quantities in the Chaman Hazouri and the Bhir Mound hoards.

Early punch-marked coins of Gandhara, Taxila-Gandhara region.

Greek Archaic coinage (until about 480 BC)

Further information: Archaic period of ancient Greek coinage

Silver stater of Aegina, 550–530 BC. Obv. Sea turtle with large pellets down centre. Rev. incuse square punch with eight sections.

Athenian coin (c. 500/490–485 BC) discovered in the Shaikhan Dehri hoard in Pushkalavati, Ancient India. This coin is the earliest known example of its type to be found so far east.

According to Aristotle (fr. 611,37, ed. V. Rose) and Pollux (Onamastikon IX.83), the first issuer of Greek coinage was Hermodike of Kyme.

A small percentage of early Lydian/Greek coins have a legend.[30] The most ancient inscribed coin known is from nearby Caria. This coin has a Greek legend reading phaenos emi sema[31] interpreted variously as "I am the badge of Phanes", or "I am the sign of light".[32] The Phanes coins are among the earliest of Greek coins; a hemihekte of the issue was found in the foundation deposit of the temple of Artemis at Ephesos (the oldest deposit of electrum coins discovered). One assumption is that Phanes was a mercenary mentioned by Herodotus, another that this coin is associated with the primeval god Phanes or "Phanes" might have been an epithet of the local goddess identified with Artemis. Barclay V. Head found these suggestions unlikely and thought it more probably "the name of some prominent citizen of Ephesus".

Another candidate for the site of the earliest coins is Aegina, where Chelone ("turtle") coins were first minted c. 700 BC. Coins from Athens and Corinth appeared shortly thereafter, known to exist at least since the late 6th century BC.

Coin of Phaselis, Lycia, c. 550–530/20 BC.

Coin of Lycia, c. 520–470/60 BC.

Lycia coin, c. 520-470 BC. Struck with worn obverse die.

Coin of Lesbos, Ionia, c. 510–80 BC.

Antiquity

Classical Greek antiquity (480 BC~)

Tetradrachm of Athens

(c. 454–404 BC)

Obverse: a portrait of Athena, patron goddess of the city, in helmet

Reverse: the owl of Athens, with an olive sprig and the inscription "ΑΘΕ", short for ΑΘΕΝΑΙΟΝ, "of the Athenians"

A Syracusan tetradrachm

(c. 415–405 BC)

Obverse: head of the nymph Arethusa, surrounded by four swimming dolphins and a rudder

Reverse: a racing quadriga, its charioteer crowned by the goddess Victory in flight.

Further information: Ancient Greek coinage and Illyrian coinage

The Classical period saw Greek coinage reach a high level of technical and aesthetic quality. Larger cities now produced a range of fine silver and gold coins, most bearing a portrait of their patron god or goddess or a legendary hero on one side, and a symbol of the city on the other. Some coins employed a visual pun: some coins from Rhodes featured a rose, since the Greek word for rose is rhodon. The use of inscriptions on coins also began, usually the name of the issuing city.

The wealthy cities of Sicily produced some especially fine coins. The large silver decadrachm (10-drachm) coin from Syracuse is regarded by many collectors as the finest coin produced in the ancient world, perhaps ever. Syracusan issues were rather standard in their imprints, one side bearing the head of the nymph Arethusa and the other usually a victorious quadriga. The tyrants of Syracuse were fabulously rich, and part of their public relations policy was to fund quadrigas for the Olympic chariot race, a very expensive undertaking. As they were often able to finance more than one quadriga at a time, they were frequent victors in this highly prestigious event. Syracuse was one of the epicenters of numismatic art during the classical period. Led by the engravers Kimon and Euainetos, Syracuse produced some of the finest coin designs of antiquity.

Amongst the first centers to produce coins during the Greek colonization of mainland Southern Italy (Magna Graecia) were Paestum, Crotone, Sybaris, Caulonia, Metapontum, and Taranto. These ancient cities started producing coins from 550BC to 510BC.

Amisano, in a general publication, including the Etruscan coinage, attributing it the beginning to about 560 BC in Populonia, a chronology that would leave out the contribution of the Greeks of Magna Graecia and attribute to the Etruscans the burden of introducing the coin in Italy. In this work, constant reference is made to classical sources, and credit is given to the origin of the Etruscan Lydia, a source supported by Herodotus, and also to the invention of coin in Lydia.

Aegina coin type, incuse skew pattern, c. 456/45–431 BC

Coin of Akanthos, Macedon, c. 470-430 BC.

Coin of Aspendos, Pamphylia, c. 465–430 BC.

Coin from Korkyra, c. 350/30–290/70 BC.

Coin of Cyprus, c. 450 BC.

Appearance of dynastic portraiture (5th century BC)

The Achaemenid Empire Satraps and Dynasts in Asia Minor developed the usage of portraiture from c. 420 BC. Portrait of the Satrap of Lydia, Tissaphernes (c. 445–395 BC).

Although many of the first coins illustrated the images of various gods, the first portraiture of actual rulers appears with the coinage of Lycia in the 5th century BC. No ruler had dared illustrating his own portrait on coinage until that time.The Achaemenids had been the first to illustrate the person of their king or a hero in a stereotypical manner, showing a bust or the full body but never an actual portrait, on their Sigloi and Daric coinage from c. 500 BC. A slightly earlier candidate for the first portrait-coin is Themistocles the Athenian general, who became a Governor of Magnesia on the Meander, c. 465–459 BC, for the Achaemenid Empire, although there is some doubt that his coins may have represented Zeus rather than himself. Themistocles may have been in a unique position in which he could transfer the notion of individual portraiture, already current in the Greek world, and at the same time wield the dynastic power of an Achaemenid dynasty who could issue his own coins and illustrate them as he wished.[46] From the time of Alexander the Great, portraiture of the issuing ruler would then become a standard, generalized, feature of coinage.

Coin of Themistocles as Governor of Magnesia. Obv: Barley grain. Rev: Possible portrait of Themistocles, c. 465–459 BC.

Portrait of Lycian ruler Kherei wearing the Persian cap on the reverse of his coins (ruled 410–390 BC).

Portrait of Lycian ruler Erbbina wearing the Persian cap on the reverse of his coins (ruled 390–380 BC).

Portrait of Lycian ruler Perikles facing (rule d 380-360 BC).

Indian coins (c. 400 BC – AD 100)

See also: Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley and Coinage of India

Hoard of mostly Mauryan Empire coins, 3rd century BC.

The Karshapana is the earliest punch-marked coin found in India, produced from at least the mid-4th century BC, and possibly as early as 575 BC,[48] influenced by similar coins produced in Gandhara under the Achaemenid empire, such as those of the Kabul hoard,[49] or other examples found at Pushkalavati and in Bhir Mound

Chinese round coins (350 BC~)

Main article: Ancient Chinese coinage

Chinese round coins, Eastern Zhou dynasty – Warring States Period, c. 300–220 BC. Four Hua (四化, 30mm, 6.94 g). Legend Yi Si Hua ([City of] Yi Four Hua).

In China, early round coins appeared in the 4th century BC and were adopted for all China by Emperor Qin Shi Huang Di at the end of 3rd century BC.[50] The round coin, the precursor of the familiar cash coin, circulated in both the spade and knife money areas in the Zhou period, from around 350 BC. Apart from two small and presumably late coins from the State of Qin, coins from the spade money area have a round hole and refer to the jin and liang units. Those from the knife money area have a square hole and are denominated in hua (化).

Although for discussion purposes the Zhou coins are divided up into categories of knives, spades, and round coins, it is apparent from archaeological finds that most of the various kinds circulated together. A hoard found in 1981, near Hebi in north Henan province, consisted of: 3,537 Gong spades, 3 Anyi arched foot spades, 8 Liang Dang Lie spades, 18 Liang square foot spades and 1,180 Yuan round coins, all contained in three clay jars.

Hellenistic period (320 BC – AD 30)

Further information: Ptolemaic coinage, Seleucid coinage, and Indo-Greek coinage

Poshumous Alexander the Great tetradrachm from

Posthumous Alexander the Great tetradrachm from Temnos, Aeolis. Dated 188–170 BC. Obverse: Alexander the Great as Herakles facing right wearing the nemean lionskin. Reverse: Zeus seated on throne to the left holding eagle in right hand and scepter in left; in left field PA monogram and angular sigma above grape vine arching over oinochoe; ALEXANDROU vertical in right field. Reference: Price 1678.

The Hellenistic period was characterized by the spread of Greek culture across a large part of the known world. Greek-speaking kingdoms were established in Egypt and Syria, and for a time also in Iran and as far east as what is now Afghanistan and northwestern India. Greek traders spread Greek coins across this vast area, and the new kingdoms soon began to produce their own coins. Because these kingdoms were much larger and wealthier than the Greek city states of the classical period, their coins tended to be more mass-produced, as well as larger, and more frequently in gold. They often lacked the aesthetic delicacy of coins of the earlier period.

Still, some of the Greco-Bactrian coins, and those of their successors in India, the Indo-Greeks, are considered the finest examples of Greek numismatic art with "a nice blend of realism and idealization", including the largest coins to be minted in the Hellenistic world: the largest gold coin was minted by Eucratides (reigned 171–145 BC), the largest silver coin by the Indo-Greek king Amyntas Nikator (reigned c. 95–90 BC). The portraits "show a degree of individuality never matched by the often bland depictions of their royal contemporaries further West" (Roger Ling, "Greece and the Hellenistic World").

Seleucus Nicator (312–281 BCE), Ai Khanoum.

  Antiochus I (281–261 BC), Ai Khanoum.

Bilingual coin of Indo-Greek king Antialcidas (105–95 BC).

Bilingual coin of Agathocles of Bactria with Hindu deities, c. 180 BC.

Roman period (290 BC~)

Further information: Roman currency, Roman Republican currency, Aureus, Solidus (coin), Denarius, Antoninianus, and Sestertius

O: Bearded head of Mars with Corinthian helmet left. R: Horse head right, grain ear behind.

The first Roman silver coin, 281 BC. Crawford 13/1

Coinage followed Greek colonization and influence first around the Mediterranean and soon after to North Africa (including Egypt), Syria, Persia, and the Balkans.[52] Coins came late to the Roman Republic compared with the rest of the Mediterranean, especially Greece and Asia Minor where coins were invented in the 7th century BC. The currency of central Italy was influenced by its natural resources, with bronze being abundant (the Etruscans were famous metal workers in bronze and iron) and silver ore being scarce. The coinage of the Roman Republic started with a few silver coins apparently devised for trade with Celtic in northern Italy and the Greek colonies in Southern Italy, and heavy cast bronze pieces for use in Central Italy. The first Roman coins, which were crude, heavy cast bronzes, were issued c. 289 BC.[53] Amisano, in a general publication, including the Etruscan coinage, attributing it the beginning to about 550 BC in Populonia, a chronology that would leave out the contribution of the Greeks of Magna Graecia and attribute to the Etruscans the burden of introducing the coin in Italy. In this work, constant reference is made to classical sources, and credit is given to the origin of the Etruscan Lydia, a source supported by Herodotus, and also to the invention of coin in Lydia.[39]

Sestertius of Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus, AD 238

  Set of three Roman aurei depicting the rulers of the Flavian dynasty. Top to bottom: Vespasian, Titus and Domitian, AD 69–96

Silver Drachma of Mehrdad (Mithridates I) of Persian Empire of Parthia, 165 BC

Middle Ages

Further information: Byzantine mints, Visigothic coinage, Coinage in Anglo-Saxon England, Medieval Bulgarian coinage, Gold dinar, Coinage of the Republic of Venice, Portuguese dinheiro, Sceat, and Pfennig

Further information: History of the English penny (c. 600 – 1066), Japanese mon (currency), and Reichsmünzordnung

The first European coin to use Arabic numerals to date the year in which the coin was minted was the St. Gall silver Plappart of 1424.[54]

Lombardic Tremissis depicting Saint Michael, AD 688–700

Silver coin of Borandukht of Persian Sassanian Empire, AD 629

Silver Dirham of the Umayyad Caliphate, AD 729; minted by using Persian Sassanian framework

Abbasid coin, c. 1080s

Almoravid coin, 1138–1139

Modern history

Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel Thaler minted in 1629

Japanese local currency Genbun Inari Koban Kin, c. 1736–1741

 1768 silver Spanish Dollar, or eight reales coin (the “piece of eight” of pirate fame), minted throughout the Spanish Empire

1768 silver Spanish Dollar, or eight reales coin (the “piece of eight” of pirate fame), minted throughout the Spanish Empire

Ottoman coin, 1818

One Rupee coin issued by the East India Company, 1835

Silver coin of the Bengal Sultanate ruler Jalaluddin Muhammad

Value

Five million mark coin (Weimar Republic, 1923). Despite its high denomination, this coin's monetary value dropped to a tiny fraction of a US cent by the end of 1923, substantially less than the value of its metallic content.

An unusual copper coin of King

George IV of Georgia with

Georgian inscriptions, 1210

A silver coin made during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Alamgir II

Currency

Most coins presently are made of a base metal, and their value comes from their status as fiat money. This means that the value of the coin is established by law, and thus is determined by the free market only in as much as national currencies are used in domestic trade and also traded internationally on foreign exchange markets. Thus, these coins are monetary tokens, just as paper currency is: their value is usually not backed by metal, but rather by some form of government guarantee. Thus, there is very little economic difference between notes and coins of equivalent face value.

Coins may be in circulation with face values lower than the value of their component metals, but they are never initially issued with such value, and the shortfall only arises over time due to inflation, as market values for the metal overtake the face value of the coin. Examples are the pre-1965 US dime, quarter, half dollar, and dollar (containing slightly less than a tenth, quarter, half, and full ounce of silver, respectively), US nickel, and pre-1982 US penny. As a result of the increase in the value of copper, the United States greatly reduced the amount of copper in each penny. Since mid-1982, United States pennies are made of 97.5% zinc, with the remaining 2.5% being a coating of copper. Extreme differences between face values and metal values of coins cause coins to be hoarded or removed from circulation by illicit smelters in order to realize the value of their metal content. This is an example of Gresham's law. The United States Mint, in an attempt to avoid this, implemented new interim rules on December 14, 2006, subject to public comment for 30 days, which criminalized the melting and export of pennies and nickels.[55] Violators can be fined up to $10,000 and/or imprisoned for up to five years.[56]

Collector's items

A coin's value as a collector's item or as an investment generally depends on its condition, specific historical significance, rarity, quality, beauty of the design and general popularity with collectors. If a coin is greatly lacking in all of these, it is unlikely to be worth much. The value of bullion coins is also influenced to some extent by those factors, but is largely based on the value of their gold, silver, or platinum content. Sometimes non-monetized bullion coins such as the Canadian Maple Leaf and the American Gold Eagle are minted with nominal face values less than the value of the metal in them, but as such coins are never intended for circulation, these face values have no relevance.

Collector catalogs often include information about coins to assists collectors with identifying and grading. Additional resources can be found online for collectors These are collector clubs, collection management tools, marketplaces,[57] trading platforms, and forums,

Media of expression

See also: Hobo nickel and Elongated penny

Coins can be used as creative media of expression – from fine art sculpture to the penny machines that can be found in most amusement parks. In the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) in the United States there are some regulations specific to nickels and pennies that are informative on this topic. 31 CFR § 82.1 forbids unauthorized persons from exporting, melting, or treating any 5 or 1 cent coins.[58]

This has been a particular problem with nickels and dimes (and with some comparable coins in other currencies) because of their relatively low face value and unstable commodity prices. For a while,[when?] the copper in US pennies was worth more than one cent, so people would hoard pennies and then melt them down for their metal value. It cost more than face value to manufacture pennies or nickels, so any widespread loss of the coins in circulation could be expensive for the US Treasury. This was more of a problem when coins were still made of precious metals like silver and gold, so strict laws against alteration make more sense historically.

31 CFR § 82.2(b) goes on to state that: "The prohibition contained in § 82.1 against the treatment of 5-cent coins and one-cent coins shall not apply to the treatment of these coins for educational, amusement, novelty, jewelry, and similar purposes as long as the volumes treated and the nature of the treatment makes it clear that such treatment is not intended as a means by which to profit solely from the value of the metal content of the coins."

Debasement and clipping

A Swiss ten-cent coin from 1879, similar to the oldest coins still in official use today

Alexander the Great Tetradrachm from the Temnos Mint

Alexander the Great Tetradrachm from the Temnos Mint, c. 188–170 BC

Throughout history, monarchs and governments have often created more coinage than their supply of precious metals would allow if the coins were pure metal. By replacing some fraction of a coin's precious metal content with a base metal (often copper or nickel), the intrinsic value of each individual coin was reduced (thereby "debasing" the money), allowing the coining authority to produce more coins than would otherwise be possible. Debasement occasionally occurs in order to make the coin physically harder and therefore less likely to be worn down as quickly, but the more usual reason is to profit from the difference between face value and metal value. Debasement of money almost always leads to price inflation. Sometimes price controls are at the same time also instituted by the governing authority, but historically these have generally proved unworkable.

The United States is unusual in that it has only slightly modified its coinage system (except for the images and symbols on the coins, which have changed a number of times) to accommodate two centuries of inflation. The one-cent coin has changed little since 1856 (though its composition was changed in 1982 to remove virtually all copper from the coin) and still remains in circulation, despite a greatly reduced purchasing power. On the other end of the spectrum, the largest coin in common circulation is valued at 25 cents, a very low value for the largest denomination coin compared to many other countries. Increases in the prices of copper, nickel, and zinc meant that both the US one- and five-cent coins became worth more for their raw metal content than their face (fiat) value. In particular, copper one-cent pieces (those dated prior to 1982 and some 1982-dated coins) contained about two cents' worth of copper.

Some denominations of circulating coins that were formerly minted in the United States are no longer made. These include coins with a face value of a half cent, two cents, three cents, and twenty cents. (The half dollar and dollar coins are still produced, but mostly for vending machines and collectors.) In the past, the US also coined the following denominations for circulation in gold: One dollar, $2.50, three dollars, five dollars, ten dollars, and twenty dollars. In addition, cents were originally slightly larger than the modern quarter and weighed nearly half an ounce, while five-cent coins (known then as "half dimes") were smaller than a dime and made of a silver alloy. Dollar coins were also much larger, and weighed approximately an ounce. One-dollar gold coins are no longer produced and rarely used. The US also issues bullion and commemorative coins with the following denominations: 50¢, $1, $5, $10, $25, $50, and $100.

Circulating coins commonly suffered from "shaving" or "clipping": the public would cut off small amounts of precious metal from their edges to sell it and then pass on the mutilated coins at full value.[60] Unmilled British sterling silver coins were sometimes reduced to almost half their minted weight. This form of debasement in Tudor England was commented on by Sir Thomas Gresham, whose name was later attached to Gresham's law. The monarch would have to periodically recall circulating coins, paying only the bullion value of the silver, and reminting them. This, also known as recoinage, is a long and difficult process that was done only occasionally.[61] Many coins have milled or reeded edges, originally designed to make it easier to detect clipping.

Other uses

Some convicted criminals from the British Isles who were sentenced to transportation to Australia in the 18th and 19th centuries used coins to leave messages of remembrance to loved ones left behind in Britain. The coins were defaced, smoothed and inscribed, either by stippling or engraving, with sometimes touching words of loss. These coins were called "convict love tokens" or "leaden hearts".[62] Some of these tokens are in the collection of the National Museum of Australia.

Modern features

Coins can be stacked.

1884 United States trade dollar

French 1992 twenty Franc Tri-Metallic coin

Bimetallic Egyptian one pound coin featuring King Tutankhamen

The side of a coin carrying an image of a monarch, other authority (see List of people on coins), or a national emblem is called the obverse (colloquially, heads); the other side, carrying various types of information, is called the reverse (colloquially, tails). The year of minting is usually shown on the obverse, although some Chinese coins, most Canadian coins, the pre-2008 British 20p coin, the post-1999 American quarter, and all Japanese coins are exceptions.

The relation of the images on the obverse and reverse of a coin is the coin's orientation. If the image on the obverse of the coin is right side up and turning the coin left or right on its vertical axis reveals that the reverse of the coin is also right side up, then the coin is said to have medallic orientation—typical of the Euro and pound sterling; if, however, turning the coin left or right shows that the reverse image is upside down, then the coin is said to have coin orientation, characteristic of the United States dollar coin.

Bimetallic coins are sometimes used for higher values and for commemorative purposes. In the 1990s, France used a tri-metallic coin. Common circulating bimetallic examples include the €1, €2, British £1, £2 and Canadian $2 and several peso coins in Mexico.

The exergue is the space on a coin beneath the main design, often used to show the coin's date, although it is sometimes left blank or contains a mint mark, privy mark, or some other decorative or informative design feature. Many coins do not have an exergue at all, especially those with few or no legends, such as the Victorian bun penny.

3 Rubles proof coin of Russia, minted in 2008

Not all coins are round; they come in a variety of shapes. The Australian 50-cent coin, for example, has twelve flat sides. Some coins have wavy edges, e.g. the $2 and 20-cent coins of Hong Kong and the 10-cent coins of Bahamas. Some are square-shaped, such as the 15-cent coin of the Bahamas and the 50-cent coin from Aruba. During the 1970s, Swazi coins were minted in several shapes, including squares, polygons, and wavy edged circles with 8 and 12 waves.

Scalloped coin of Israel

1996 one cent coin from Belize

Decagonal two Piso Philippine coin 1990

Some other coins, like the British 20 and 50 pence coins and the Canadian Loonie, have an odd number of sides, with the edges rounded off. This way the coin has a constant diameter, recognizable by vending machines whichever direction it is inserted.

A triangular coin with a face value of £5 (produced to commemorate the 2007/2008 Tutankhamun exhibition at The O2 Arena) was commissioned by the Isle of Man: it became legal tender on 6 December 2007.[63] Other triangular coins issued earlier include: Cabinda coin, Bermuda coin, 2 Dollar Cook Islands 1992 triangular coin, Uganda Millennium Coin and Polish Sterling-Silver 10-Zloty Coin.

Some medieval coins, called bracteates, were so thin they were struck on only one side.

Many coins over the years have been manufactured with integrated holes such as Chinese "cash" coins, Japanese coins, Colonial French coins, etc. This may have been done to permit their being strung on cords, to facilitate storage and being carried. Nowadays, holes help to differentiate coins of similar size and metal, such as the Japanese 50 yen and 100 yen coin.

1917 French coin with integrated hole

Chinese cash coin, 1102–1106

1941 Palestine coin

Modern-day Japanese 50-yen coin

 1924 East African coin

Holographic coin from Liberia features the Statue of Liberty (Liberty Enlightening the World)

The Royal Canadian Mint is now able to produce holographic-effect gold and silver coinage. However, this procedure is not limited to only bullion or commemorative coinage. The 500 yen coin from Japan was subject to a massive amount of counterfeiting. The Japanese government in response produced a circulatory coin with a holographic image.

The Royal Canadian Mint has also released several coins that are colored, the first of which was in commemoration of Remembrance Day. The subject was a colored poppy on the reverse of a 25-cent piece minted through a patented process.

An example of non-metallic composite coins (sometimes incorrectly called plastic coins) was introduced into circulation in Transnistria on 22 August 2014. Most of these coins are also non-circular, with different shapes corresponding to different coin values.

For a list of many pure metallic elements and their alloys which have been used in actual circulation coins and for trial experiments, see coinage metals.

Physics and chemistry

An American Silver Eagle minted in 2019 (left), an example of a Bullion coin. Its obverse design is based on the older, formerly circulating silver Walking Liberty half dollar (right).

Flipping

To flip a coin to see whether it lands heads or tails is to use it as a two-sided dice in what is known in mathematics as a Bernoulli trial: if the probability of heads (in the parlance of Bernoulli trials, a "success") is exactly 0.5, the coin is fair.

Spinning

Further information: Euler's Disk

Coins can also be spun on a flat surface such as a table. This results in the following phenomenon: as the coin falls over and rolls on its edge, it spins faster and faster (formally, the precession rate of the symmetry axis of the coin, i.e., the axis passing from one face of the coin to the other) before coming to an abrupt stop. This is mathematically modeled as a finite-time singularity – the precession rate is accelerating to infinity, before it suddenly stops, and has been studied using high speed photography and devices such as Euler's Disk. The slowing down is predominantly caused by rolling friction (air resistance is minor), and the singularity (divergence of the precession rate) can be modeled as a power law with exponent approximately −1/3.

Odor

Iron and copper coins have a characteristic metallic smell that is produced upon contact with oils in the skin. Perspiration is chemically reduced upon contact with these metals, which causes the skin oils to decompose, forming with iron the volatile molecule 1-octen-3-one.

Regional examples

Philippines

The Piloncitos are tiny engraved gold coins found in the Philippines, along with the barter rings, which are gold ring-like ingots. These barter rings are bigger than doughnuts[specify] in size and are made of pure gold from the Archaic period (c. 10th to 16th century).

In the Philippines, small, engraved gold coins called Piloncitos were excavated, some as lightweight as 0.09 to 2.65 grams. Piloncitos have been unearthed from Mandaluyong, Bataan, the banks of the Pasig River, Batangas, Marinduque, Samar, Leyte and some areas in Mindanao. Large quantities were found in Indonesian archaeological sites, suggesting that they may not have originated in the Philippines, but rather were imported. However, numerous Spanish accounts state that the gold coins were mined and labored in the Philippines, such as the following from 1586:

“The people of this island (Luzon) are very skillful in their handling of gold. They weigh it with the greatest skill and delicacy that have ever been seen. The first thing they teach their children is the knowledge of gold and the weights with which they weigh it, for there is no other money among them.”

Numismatics portal

 Tony Clayton. "Comprehensive list of metals and their alloys which have been used at various times, in coins for all types of purposes". coinsoftheuk.co.uk. Retrieved 2018-08-15.

 Metcalf, William E. (2016). The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage. Oxford University Press. pp. 61–65. ISBN 9780199372188.

 Discovery of a hoard of currency with silver bars near Malayer, dated circa 600 BCE, with photographs in Bivar, Adrian David Hugh. Hoard of Ingot-Currency of the Median Period from Nūsh-i Jān, near Malayir (1971). pp. 97–111.

 "中國最早金屬鑄幣 商代晚期鑄造銅貝-河南概況". Big5.henan.gov.cn. Archived from the original on 2012-03-17. Retrieved 2012-05-22.

 Giedroyc, Richard (2006-11-15). The Everything Coin Collecting Book: All You Need to Start Your Collection …. ISBN 9781593375683. Archived from the original on 2013-05-28. Retrieved 2012-05-21.

 YK Kwan. "A snap shot view of The history of China by YK Kwan". Chinesechinese.net. Archived from the original on 2012-05-03. Retrieved 2012-05-21.

 Kramer, Jillian (6 August 2021). "'World's oldest' coin factory discovered in China". National geographic. Retrieved 24 July 2022.

 Zhao, Hao; Gao, Xiangping; Jiang, Yuchao; Lin, Yi; Zhu, Jin; Ding, Sicong; Deng, Lijun; Zhang, Ji (6 August 2021). "Radiocarbon-dating an early minting site: the emergence of standardised coinage in China". Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. 95 (383): 1161–1178. doi:10.15184/aqy.2021.94. S2CID 238220610. Retrieved 24 July 2022.

 CNG: IONIA, Ephesos. Phanes. Circa 625–600 BC. EL Trite (14mm, 4.67 g).

 M. Kroll, review of G. Le Rider's La naissance de la monnaie, Schweizerische Numismatische Rundschau 80 (2001), p. 526. D. Sear, Greek Coins and Their Values Vol. 2, Seaby, London, 1979, p. 317.

 "The Types of Greek Coins" An Archaeological Essay by Percy Gardner 1883 p.42 "Considering these and other facts it may be held to be probable, if not absolutely proved, that priests first issued stamped coin, and that the first mints were in Greek temples." 

 Metcalf, William E. (2016). The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage. Oxford University Press. pp. 49–50. ISBN 9780199372188.

 "Hoards, Small Change, and the Origin of Capitalism," Journal of the Hellenistic Studies 84 (1964), p. 89

 M. Mitchiner, Ancient Trade and Early Coinage, Hawkins Publications, London, 2004, p. 214

 Muscarella, Oscar White (15 June 2013). Archaeology, Artifacts and Antiquities of the Ancient Near East: Sites, Cultures, and Proveniences. ISBN 978-9004236691.

 G. Hanfmann, pp. 73, 77. R. Seaford, p. 128, points out, "The nearly total lack of … coins in the excavated commercial-industrial areas of Sardis suggests that they were concentrated in the hands of the king and possibly wealthy merchants."

 A. Ramage, "Golden Sardis", King Croesus' Gold: Excavations at Sardis and the History of Gold Refining, edited by A. Ramage and P. Craddock, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 2000, p. 18.

 "Cent". Archived from the original on 6 March 2015. Retrieved 7 March 2015.

 Michael Alram, "DARIC", Encyclopaedia Iranica, December 15, 1994, last updated November 17, 2011

 Bopearachchi, Osmund; Cribb, Joe (1992), "Coins illustrating the History of the Crossroads of Asia", in Errington, Elizabeth; Cribb, Joe; Claringbull, Maggie (eds.), The Crossroads of Asia: transformation in image and symbol in the art of ancient Afghanistan and Pakistan, Ancient India and Iran Trust, pp. 57–59, ISBN 978-0-9518399-1-1, Coins of this type found in Chaman Hazouri (deposited c.350 BCE) and Bhir Mound hoards (deposited c.300 BCE).

 Bopearachchi & Cribb, Coins illustrating the History of the Crossroads of Asia 1992, pp. 57–59: "The most important and informative of these hoards is the Chaman Hazouri hoard from Kabul discovered in 1933, which contained royal Achaemenid sigloi from the western part of the Achaemenid Empire, together with a large number of Greek coins dating from the fifth and early fourth century BCE, including a local imitation of an Athenian tetradrachm, all apparently taken from circulation in the region."

 Bopearachchi, Coin Production and Circulation 2000, pp. 300–301

 Bopearachchi, Coin Production and Circulation 2000, p. 309 and Note 65

 Metcalf, William E. (2016). The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage. Oxford University Press. pp. 70–80. ISBN 9780199372188.

 André-Salvini, Béatrice (2005). Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia. University of California Press. p. 208 Coin no.381 for the Persian column capitals. ISBN 9780520247314.

 Cribb, Investigating the introduction of coinage in India 1983, p. 101

 372. Lot: 658, Lot of two AR bent bars, CNG Coins. Bopearachchi & Cribb, Coins illustrating the History of the Crossroads of Asia 1992, pp. 57–59: "Silver bent-bar punch-marked coin of Kabul region under the Achaemenid Empire, c.350 BC: Coins of this type found in quantity in Chaman Hazouri and Bhir Mound hoards." (Commentary by Joe Cribb and Osmund Bopearachchi)

 "Extremely Rare Early Silver from the Kabul Valley", CNG 102, Lot:649, CNG Coins

 "A Truly International Currency", Triton XV, Lot: 1163, ATTICA, Athens Archived 2019-12-25 at the Wayback Machine, CNG Coins

 "Inscriptions and Titles on ancient Greek coins". Snible.org. Archived from the original on 2012-06-08. Retrieved 2012-05-21.

 "Electrum stater inscribed with the name of Phanes". British Museum. 2011-09-29. Archived from the original on 2012-05-15. Retrieved 2012-05-21.

 Newton Num. Chron., 1870, p. 238

 Head, Barclay V. (1911). Historia Numorum, A Manual of Greek Numismatics, New and Enlarged Edition. London: Clarendon Press. Retrieved 25 October 2021.

 British Museum Catalogue 11 – Attica Megaris Aegina, 700 – 550 BCE, plate XXIII Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine.

 C. Kraay, Archaic and Classical Greek Coins, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1976.

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