1930 Palestine MINIATURE Jewish BEZALEL OLIVE WOOD PSALMS Israel JERUSALEM Bible

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Seller: judaica-bookstore ✉️ (2,805) 100%, Location: TEL AVIV, IL, Ships to: WORLDWIDE, Item: 276396268567 1930 Palestine MINIATURE Jewish BEZALEL OLIVE WOOD PSALMS Israel JERUSALEM Bible.

DESCRIPTION :  Here for sale is an original EXTREMELY RARE Bezalel illustrated OLIVE WOOD covered Judaica ULTRA MINIATURE ( 1.25" x 2.0" ) JEWISH BOOK of PSALMS. Published ca 1930's inERETZ ISRAEL - PALESTINE. Publisher unknown ( Propably SINAI in Tel Aviv ). Written in English.  14 miniature FULL PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS , Based on verses and locationsfrom the BOOK OF PSALMS . Iconic locations such as The WAILING - WESTERN WALL , The DAVID TOWER - CITADEL ( Also artisticaly illustrated on the front olive wood cover ) , The TEMPLE MOUNT , The DOME OF THE ROCK , AL AQSA , The MOSQUE of OMAR , Also An illustration by E.M.LILIEN of the BEZALEL SCHOOL OF ART in JERUSALEM depicting "BY THE RIVERS OF BABYLON WE SAT AND WEPT" . The colorful COVER ILLUSTRATION depicts the DAVID TOWER in the OLD CITY of JERUSALEM. The BOOK was manufactured around  80 - 90 years ago in ERETZ ISRAEL ( Then also refered to as Palestine ), A decade or two before the establishment of the INDEPENDENT STATE of ISRAEL and its 1948 WAR of INDEPENDENCE . The HAND MADE colorful illustrated back and front OLIVE WOOD COVERS were designed by the BEZALEL ARTISTS , Colorful illustration of the DAVID TOWER ( Also the DAVID CITADEL or TOWER OF DAVID or MIGDAL DAVID ) in the old holy city of JERUSALEM - ERETZ ISRAEL - PALESTINE . On verso a STAMP-SIGNATURE of JERUSALEM. Original illustrated and decorated OLIVE WOOD HC. Original cloth spine. Around 100 pp. Officialy MINIATURE .1.25 x 2.0". The condition is EXCELLENT - PRISTINE , Practicaly unused. Perfectly clean. Tightly bound.  ( Please look at scan for actual AS IS images )  . Will be sent protected inside a protective rigid packaging .  

AUTHENTICITY : This is an ORIGINAL vintage ca late 1940's MINIATURE BOOK OF PSALMS bound by ORIGINAL illustrated BEZALEL olive wood binding created in ERETZ ISRAEL , NOT a reproduction , Immitation or a reprint  , It holds a life long GUARANTEE for its AUTHENTICITY and ORIGINALITY.

PAYMENTS : Payment method accepted : Paypal & All credit cards .

SHIPPMENT : SHIPP worldwide via  registered airmail is $19 . Will be sent protected inside a protective rigid packaging .  Handling around 5-10 days after payment. 

The term Bezalel school describes a group of artists who worked in Israel in the late Ottoman and British Mandate periods. It is named after the institution where they were employed, the Bezalel Academy, predecessor of today’s Bezalel Academy of Art and Design, and has been described as "a fusion of ‘oriental' art and Jugendstil." The Academy was led by Boris Schatz, who left his position as head of the Royal Academy of Arts in Sofia, Bulgaria, to make aliyah 1906 and set up an academy for Jewish arts. All of the members of the school were Zionist immigrants from Europe and the Middle East, with all the psychological and social upheaval that this implies. The school developed a distinctive style, in which artists portrayed both Biblical and Zionist subjects in a style influenced by the European jugendstil ( or art nouveau) movement, by symbolism, and by traditional Persian and Syrian artistry. Like the British Arts and Crafts Movement, Wiener Werkstätte in Vienna, William Morris firm in England, and Tiffany Studios in New York, the Bezalel School produced decorative art objects in a wide range of media: silver, leather, wood, brass and fabric. While the artists and designers were European-trained, the craftsmen who executed the works were often members of the Yemenite community, which has a long tradition of craftsanship in precious metals, and began to make aliyah about 1880. Yemenite immigrants with their colorful traditional costumes were also frequent subjects of Bezalel School artists.Leading members of the school were Boris Schatz, E.M. Lilien,Ya'akov Stark, Meir Gur Arie, Ze'ev Raban, Jacob Eisenberg, Jacob Steinhardt, and Hermann Struck.The artists produced not only paintings and etchings, but objects that might be sold as Judiaca or souvenirs. In 1915, the New York Times praised the “Exquisite examples of filigree work, copper inlay, carving in and in wood,” in a touring exhibit. In the metalwork Moorish patterns predominated, and the damascene work, in particular, showed both artistic feeling and skill in execution . Bezalel Academy of Art and Design is Israel's national school of art. It is named after the Biblical figure Bezalel, son of Uri (Hebrew: ), who was appointed by Moses to oversee the design and construction of the Tabernacle (Exodus 35:30).It is located on Mount Scopus in Jerusalem and has 1,500 students registered in programs such as: Fine Arts, Architecture, Ceramic Design, Industrial Design, Jewelry, Photography, Visual Communication, Animation, Film, and Art History & Theory. Bezalel offers Bachelor of Fine Arts (B.F.A.), Bachelor of Architecture (B.Arch.), Bachelor of Design (B.Des.) degrees, a Master of Fine Arts in conjunction with Hebrew University, and two different Master of design (M.des) degree. The academy was founded in 1903 by Boris Schatz, and opened in 1906, but was cut off from its supporters in Europe by World War I, and closed due to financial difficulties in 1929. The academy was named "Bezalel" (Hebrew: "in God's shadow") as an illustration of God's creativity being channeled to a man of flesh and blood, providing the source of inspiration to Bezalel ben Uri in the construction of the holy ark.Many early Zionists, including Theodor Herzl, felt that Israel needed to have a national style of art combining Jewish, Middle Eastern, and European traditions. The teachers at the academy developed a distinctive school (or style) of art, known as the Bezalel school, in which artists portrayed both Biblical and Zionist subjects in a style influenced by the European jugendstil (art nouveau) and by traditional Persian and Syrian styles.Like the Wiener Werkstätte in Vienna, William Morris firm in England, and Tiffany Studios in New York, the Bezalel School produced decorative art objects in a wide range of media: silver, leather, wood, brass and fabric. While the artists and designers were European-trained, the craftsmen who executed the works were often members of the Yemenite community, which has a long tradition of craftsanship in precious metals, and whose members had been making aliyah in small groups at least form the beginning of the nineteenth century, forming a distinctive Yeminite community in Jerusalem. Silver and goldsmithing, occupations forbidden to pious Muslims, had been traditional Jewish occupations in Yemen. Yemenite immigrants with their colorful traditional costumes were also frequent subjects of Bezalel school artists.Leading artists of the school include Meir Gur Aryeh, Ze'ev Raban, Boris Schatz, Jacob Eisenberg, Jacob Steinhardt, and Hermann Struck. The School folded because of economic difficulties. It was reopened as the New Bezalel School for Arts and Crafts in 1935, attracting many of its teachers and students from Germany many of them from the Bauhaus school which had been shut down by the Nazis. In 1969 it was converted into a state-supported institution and took its current name. It completed its relocation to the current campus in 1990. The Tower of David (Hebrew: מגדל דוד‎, Migdal David, Arabic: برج داود‎, Burj Daud), also known as the Jerusalem Citadel, is an ancient citadel located near the Jaffa Gate entrance to the Old City of Jerusalem. The citadel that stands today dates to the Mamluk and Ottoman periods. It was built on the site of an earlier ancient fortification of the Hasmonean, Herodian, Christian and Arab-Muslim eras, but was destroyed after the Mamluk conquest of Jerusalem. It contains important archaeological finds dating back over 2,000 years including a quarry dated to the First Temple period, and is a popular venue for benefit events, craft shows, concerts, and sound-and-light performances. Dan Bahat writes that the original three Hasmonean towers were altered by Herod, and that "The northeastern tower was replaced by a much larger, more massive tower, dubbed the "Tower of David" beginning in the 5th century C.E."[1] The name "Tower of David" is due to Byzantine Christians who believed the site to be the palace of King David.[2] They borrowed the name "Tower of David" from the Song of Songs, attributed to Solomon, King David's son, who wrote: "Thy neck is like the Tower of David built with turrets, whereon there hang a thousand shields, all the armor of the mighty men." (Song of Songs, 4:4) History A mosque inside the citadel. As evidenced by the archaeological discovery of the Broad Wall, King Hezekiah was the first to specifically fortify this area. The cities fortifications demonstrate that by the late eighth century the city had expanded to include the hill to the west of the Temple Mount. The motivation for building the walled fortification was the expected invasion of Judea by Sennacherib. The wall is referred to in Nehemiah 3:8 and Isaiah 22:9-10 [3] [4] During the 2nd century BC, the Old City of Jerusalem expanded further onto the so-called Western Hill. This 773-meter-high prominence, which comprises the modern Armenian and Jewish Quarters as well as Mount Zion, was bounded by steep valleys on all sides except for its northwest corner. The first settlement in this area was about 150 BC around the time of the Hasmonean kings[1] when what Josephus Flavius named the First Wall was constructed. Herod, who assumed power after the fall of the Hasmonean dynasty, added three massive towers to the fortifications in 37–34 BC. He built these at the vulnerable northwest corner of the Western Hill, where the Tower of David is now located. His purpose was not only to defend the city, but to safeguard his own royal palace located nearby on Mount Zion. Herod named the tallest of the towers, 145 feet in height, the Phasael in memory of his brother who had committed suicide. Another tower was called the Miriam, named for his second wife whom he had executed and buried in a cave to the west of the tower. He named the third tower the Hippicus after one of his friends. Of the three towers, only the Phasael still stands today. Following the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 AD, the site served as barracks for the Roman troops. When the Roman Empire adopted Christianity as the imperial religion in the 4th century, a community of monks established itself in the citadel. After the Arab conquest of Jerusalem in 638, the new Muslim rulers refurbished the citadel. This powerful structure withstood the assault of the Crusaders in 1099, and surrendered only when its defenders were guaranteed safe passage out of the city.[citation needed] During the Crusader period, thousands of pilgrims undertook the pilgrimage to Jerusalem by way of the port at Jaffa. To protect pilgrims from the menace of highway robbers, the Crusaders built a tower surrounded by a moat atop the citadel, and posted lookouts to guard the road to Jaffa. The citadel also served as the seat of the Crusader kings of Jerusalem. The Tower of David and archeological garden, as it appears today In 1187, Sultan Saladin captured the city and the site. The Mamluks destroyed it in 1260 and later rebuilt it. The citadel was rebuilt yet again between 1537 and 1541 by the Ottomans, who designed a large entrance, behind which stood a cannon emplacement. For 400 years, the citadel served as a garrison for Turkish troops. The Ottomans also installed a mosque at the site and added the minaret, which still stands today. It was during this time that the complex began to be accepted as the "Tower of David", after the founder-king of Jerusalem. During World War I, British forces under General Edmund Allenby captured Jerusalem. General Allenby formally proclaimed the event standing on a platform outside the entrance to the Tower of David. During the period of the British Mandate (1917–1948), the British High Commissioner established the Pro-Jerusalem Society to protect the city's cultural heritage. This organization cleaned and renovated the citadel and reopened it to the public as a venue for concerts, benefit events and exhibitions by local artists. In the 1930s, a museum of Palestinian folklore was opened in the citadel, displaying traditional crafts and clothing.[5] Following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, the Arab Legion captured Jerusalem and converted the citadel back to its historical role as a military position, as it commanded a dominant view across the armistice line into Jewish Jerusalem. With the Israeli victory of 1967 after the Six-Day War, the citadel's cultural role was revived. Tower of David Museum A Dale Chihuly chandelier hangs in the entrance hall of the Tower of David Museum. The Tower of David Museum of the History of Jerusalem was opened in 1989 by the Jerusalem Foundation. Located in a series of chambers in the original citadel, the museum includes a courtyard which contains archeological ruins dating back 2,700 years. The exhibits depict 4,000 years of Jerusalem's history, from its beginnings as a Canaanite city to modern times. Using maps, videotapes, holograms, drawings and models, the exhibit rooms each depict Jerusalem under its various rulers. Visitors may also ascend to the ramparts, which command a 360-degree view of the Old City and New City of Jerusalem. As of 2002, the Jerusalem Foundation reported that over 3.5 million visitors had toured the museum.The citadel of Jerusalem, known as the "Tower of David," has been a landmark of the city since ancient times. The citadel is located on the western side of the Old City, just south of the Jaffa Gate. Its location was chosen for topographic reasons – this is the highest point of the southwestern hill of Jerusalem, higher than any other point in the ancient city, including the Temple Mount. A series of fortifications built here in the course of more than twenty centuries, protected Jerusalem from the west and also overlooked and controlled the entire city. A first archeological survey of the citadel, and excavations, were conducted between 1934 and 1947. Renewed excavations were undertaken after the reunification of the city, between the years 1968 and 1988, preparing the opening of the site to visitors. Every period has left its mark and has been identified in the assemblage of architectural remains. In the citadel’s foundations are buried the remains of Jerusalem’s fortifications from the end of the monarchic period (8th to 6th centuries BCE) through the early Arab period (seventh to eleventh centuries). The outline of the citadel known today is from the Crusader period; the citadel itself was built in the mid-16th century by the Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, and incorporates the remains of earlier citadels dating from Ayyubid and Mamluk times. The Citadel is protected by a high wall and large towers, and it is surrounded by a wide, deep moat, part of which was blocked in modern times. The entrance is from the east, via an outer gate, a bridge over the moat and a fortified inner gate house. The Early Fortification In the citadel’s courtyard, excavations have revealed the remains of fortifications dating from the late monarchic period to the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Here was the northwestern corner of the First Wall which is described in great detail by the contemporary Jewish historian Josephus Flavius. According to him, the First Wall extended from here towards the Temple Mount to the east and also to the south, surrounding Mount Zion and then joining the southern wall of the City of David. (War V,4,2) Remains of this wall and of three large towers are preserved to an impressive height of over 7 m. in the citadel courtyard. Several construction phases belonging to different periods can be observed, distinguishable by differences in the masonry and in the method of laying the stones. The Monarchic Period The wall was first built in this area by Hezekiah, king of Judah, at the end of the 8th century BCE. A detailed description of its construction on the eve of the Assyrian invasion of Judah, is in the Bible: He [Hezekiah] set to work resolutely and built up all the wall that was broken down and raised towers upon it, and outside it he built another wall. (2 Chron. 32:5) The remains of that incredibly wide wall (ca. 7 m.!), built of large boulders, were uncovered at great depth on the bedrock of the hill. This mighty fortification protected a new residential quarter built on the southwestern hill of Jerusalem which, until that time, comprised only the City of David and the Temple on Mt. Moriah. The wall was damaged in 587/6 BCE, when Jerusalem was conquered by the Babylonians. The Second Temple Period After some 300 years, the First Wall was restored by the Hasmonean rulers, who invested considerable effort in increasing the area of Jerusalem and strengthening its fortifications. At the Citadel, a 4 m. thick wall with two mighty towers, dating from this period, was uncovered. It was constructed in two phases: in the first, rectangular ashlars were laid in header fashion, a Hellenistic building style; in the second phase, ashlars with dressed margins and protruding central boss on the outer faces, were laid in alternating courses of headers and stretchers. At the end of the 1st century BCE, King Herod improved the fortifications in this area and added three huge towers to the First Wall. A precise description, including the measurements of these towers is found in the writings of Josephus Flavius. The towers, which rose high over the city, were named Phasael (after Herod’s brother), Hippicus (after Herod’s friend) and Mariamne (after Herod’s Hasmonean wife). They were built to protect the large royal palace south of them, which apparently included the area of the present day citadel and part of the Armenian Quarter. Remains of the podium built inside the First Wall to support the palace were found during excavation of the Citadel. It consists of a grid of retaining walls which held earth fill, thus artificially raising the ground level by some 5 m. One of the towers built by Herod has survived to the present day. This is the so-called Tower of David which is incorporated into the fortifications of the eastern side of the present Citadel. It should be noted that the traditional name Tower of David, said to be the result of the incorrect identification of this structure by Christian pilgrims in the Byzantine period, has in fact much earlier origins: Josephus refers to the southwestern hill of Jerusalem of that period as the "Citadel of King David." (War V,3,1) The dimensions of the Tower of David are approximately 22 x 18 m., consisting of 16 courses of large ashlar stones weighing over a ton each. They have trimmed margins and a flat central boss, carefully laid without gaps, and the interior of the tower is filled with large ashlars. The Tower of David is one of the most impressive examples of royal construction of the Second Temple period in Jerusalem. It stands to this day to a height of 20 m.! The three towers built by Herod and the other fortifications created a powerful, well protected fortress. Thence the decisive strategic role it played in the First Jewish Rebellion against Rome (66-70 CE) which ended with the siege of the city, its conquest and destruction. This is attested to in another tower, located in the southern part of the citadel, which was built in the 1st century CE and was destroyed during the rebellion: a thick layer of debris, including stones, plaster, and charred wooden roofing beams, was uncovered. The Roman Period After the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE, the Romans established a camp to quarter the Tenth Legion on the southwestern hill of the city. It was protected by the three towers built by Herod, which the Roman commander Titus had ordered to be left intact. (Josephus, War VII,1,1) Remains of this Roman Legion camp were uncovered in the courtyard of the Citadel; they include clay water pipe sections bearing seal impressions reading "L·X·F," for Legio X Fretensis, the full name of the Tenth Legion. The Byzantine Period During the Byzantine period, the fortifications of the citadel, including the Tower of David, were restored. Nearby, monks built monasteries and other religious institutions, as reported by several contemporary Christian travelers. Only fragmentary remains of fortifications, walls, cisterns and a lintel engraved with a cross, date to this period. The Early Arab Period In the 8th century, during the period of Arab rule over Jerusalem, a new citadel was established. Among its remains are a rounded corner tower measuring 10 m. in diameter, from which 4-m. thick walls extend to the north and to the west. The precise plan of this citadel is not known, as severe damage was caused when the Crusaders built their citadel. The Crusader Period The Crusader citadel, built in the 12th century, was innovative and extended northward and westward, beyond the ancient city wall. The early city wall became an inner terrace wall in the courtyard, which was buried under some 10 m. of debris, protecting and preserving it until its exposure during the archeological excavations. Today, for the first time in its long history, the citadel is no longer used for military purposes. Instead, it functions as the museum of the history of Jerusalem. Presented in its various towers are exhibits tracing 5,000 years of the city’s history. In the courtyard, remains of the First Wall and its towers, of the Second Temple period and of the fortification from the Byzantine and early Arab periods, have been preserved and serve as a veritable guidebook to the long history of Jerusalem’s fortifications on the southwestern hill. The citadel of Jerusalem, known as the "Tower of David," has been a landmark of the city since ancient times. The citadel is located on the western side of the Old City, just south of the Jaffa Gate. Its location was chosen for topographic reasons – this is the highest point of the southwestern hill of Jerusalem, higher than any other point in the ancient city, including the Temple Mount. A series of fortifications built here in the course of more than twenty centuries, protected Jerusalem from the west and also overlooked and controlled the entire city. A first archeological survey of the citadel, and excavations, were conducted between 1934 and 1947. Renewed excavations were undertaken after the reunification of the city, between the years 1968 and 1988, preparing the opening of the site to visitors. Every period has left its mark and has been identified in the assemblage of architectural remains. In the citadel’s foundations are buried the remains of Jerusalem’s fortifications from the end of the monarchic period (8th to 6th centuries BCE) through the early Arab period (seventh to eleventh centuries). The outline of the citadel known today is from the Crusader period; the citadel itself was built in the mid-16th century by the Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, and incorporates the remains of earlier citadels dating from Ayyubid and Mamluk times. The Citadel is protected by a high wall and large towers, and it is surrounded by a wide, deep moat, part of which was blocked in modern times. The entrance is from the east, via an outer gate, a bridge over the moat and a fortified inner gate house.   The Book of Psalms (Hebrew: תְּהִלִּים‎ or תהילים, Tehillim, "praises"), commonly referred to simply as Psalms or "the Psalms", is the first book of the Ketuvim ("Writings"), the third section of the Hebrew Bible, and a book of the ChristianOld Testament.[1] The title is derived from the Greek translation, ψαλμοί psalmoi, meaning "instrumental music" and, by extension, "the words accompanying the music."[2] The book is an anthology of individual psalms, with 150 in the Jewish and Western Christian tradition and more in the Eastern Christian churches.[3][4] Many of the psalms are linked to the name of King David, although his authorship is not accepted by some modern Bible scholars.[4] Contents  [hide]  1 Structure 1.1 Benedictions 1.2 Superscriptions and attributions 1.3 Numbering 1.4 Additional psalms 2 Summary 3 Composition 3.1 Origins 3.2 King David and the Psalms 3.3 Poetic characteristics 3.4 Editorial Agenda 4 The ancient music of the Psalms 5 Themes 6 Later interpretation and influence 6.1 Overview 6.2 Use of the Psalms in Jewish ritual 6.3 The Psalms in Christian worship 6.4 Eastern Orthodox Christianity 6.5 Oriental Christianity 6.6 Roman Catholic usage 6.7 Protestant usage 6.8 Anglican usage 6.9 Psalms in the Rastafari movement 6.10 Psalms in Islam 7 Psalms set to music 7.1 Multiple psalms as a single composition 7.2 Individual psalm settings 7.3 Bach 7.4 Psalm verses 7.5 Contemporary popular music 8 See also 9 References 10 Bibliography 11 External links 11.1 Translations 11.2 Commentary and others Structure[edit] For the Orthodox Christian division into twenty kathismata, see below. An 1880 Baxter process illustration of Psalm 23, from the Religious Tract Society's magazine The Sunday at Home. Benedictions[edit] The Book of Psalms is divided into five sections, each closing with a doxology (i.e., a benediction) – these divisions were probably introduced by the final editors to imitate the five-fold division of the Torah: Book 1 (Psalms 1–41) Book 2 (Psalms 42–72) Book 3 (Psalms 73–89) Book 4 (Psalms 90–106) Book 5 (Psalms 107–150)[5] Superscriptions and attributions[edit] Many psalms (116 of the 150) have individual superscriptions (titles), ranging from lengthy comments to a single word. Over a third appear to be musical directions, addressed to the "leader" or "choirmaster," including such statements as "with stringed instruments" and "according to lilies." Others appear to be references to types of musical composition, such as "A psalm" and "Song," or directions regarding the occasion for using the psalm ("On the dedication of the temple," "For the memorial offering," etc.). Many superscriptions carry the names of individuals, the most common (73 psalms) being of David, and thirteen of these relate explicitly to incidents in the king's life.[6] Others named include Moses (1), Asaph (12), the Sons of Korah (11) and Solomon (2). A natural way of understanding these attributions is as a claim to authorship,[7]but it could also mean "to David" or "for David".[8] Numbering[edit] Hebrew numbering (Masoretic) Greek numbering (Septuagint or Vulgate) 1–8 1–8 9–10 9 11–113 10–112 114–115 113 116 114–115 117–146 116–145 147 146–147 148–150 148–150 Psalms are usually identified by a sequence number, often preceded by the abbreviation "Ps." Numbering of the Psalms differs—mostly by one digit, see table—between the Hebrew (Masoretic) and Greek (Septuagint) manuscripts. Protestant translations (Lutheran, Anglican, Calvinist) use the Hebrew numbering, but other Christian traditions vary: Catholic official liturgical texts follow the Greek numbering Catholic modern translations often use the Hebrew numbering (noting the Greek number) Eastern Orthodox translations use the Greek numbering (noting the Hebrew number) For the remainder of this article, the Hebrew numbering is used, unless otherwise noted. The variance between Massorah and Septuagint texts in this numeration is likely enough due to a gradual neglect of the original poetic form of the Psalms; such neglect was occasioned by liturgical uses and carelessness of copyists. It is admitted by all that Pss. 9 and 10 were originally a single acrostic poem; they have been wrongly separated by Massorah, rightly united by the Septuagint and Vulgate. On the other hand, Ps. 144 is made up of two songs — verses 1–11 and 12–15.[9] Pss. 42 and 43 are shown by identity of subject (yearning for the house of Jahweh), of metrical structure and of refrain (cf. Heb. Ps. 42:6, 12; 43:5), to be three strophes of one and the same poem. The Hebrew text is correct in counting as one Ps. 146 and Ps. 147. Later liturgical usage would seem to have split up these and not a few other psalms. Zenner combines into what he deems were the original choral odes: Pss. 1, 2, 3, 4; 6 + 13; 9 + 10; 19, 20, 21; 56 + 57; 69 + 70; 114 + 115; 148, 149, 150.[10] A choral ode would seem to have been the original form of Pss. 14 + 70. The two strophes and the epode are Ps. 14; the two antistrophes are Ps. 70.[11] It is noteworthy that, on the breaking up of the original ode, each portion crept twice into the Psalter: Ps. 14 = 53, Ps. 70 = 40:14–18. Other such duplicated psalms are Ps. 108:2–6 = Ps. 57:8–12; Ps. 108:7–14 = Ps. 60:7–14; Ps. 71:1–3 = Ps. 31:2–4. This loss of the original form of some of the psalms is allowed by the Biblical Commission (1 May 1910) to have been due to liturgical uses, neglect of copyists, or other causes. Additional psalms[edit] The Septuagint bible, present in Eastern Orthodox churches, includes a Psalm 151; a Hebrew version of this was found in the Psalms Scroll of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Some versions of the Peshitta (the bible used in Syriac churches in the Middle East) include Psalms 152–155. There are also the Psalms of Solomon, which are a further 18 psalms of Jewish origin, likely originally written in Hebrew, but surviving only in Greek and Syriac translation. These and other indications suggest that the current Western Christian and Jewish collection of 150 psalms were selected from a wider set. Summary[edit] Hermann Gunkel's pioneering form-critical work on the psalms sought to provide a new and meaningful context in which to interpret individual psalms – not by looking at their literary context within the Psalter (which he did not see as significant), but by bringing together psalms of the same genre (Gattung) from throughout the Psalter. Gunkel divided the psalms into five primary types: Hymns, songs of praise for God's work in creation or in history. They typically open with a call to praise, describe the motivation for praise, and conclude with a repetition of the call. Two sub-categories are "enthronement psalms," celebrating the enthronement of Yahweh as king, and Zion psalms, glorifying MountZion, God's dwelling-place in Jerusalem.[12] Gunkel also described a special subset of "eschatological hymns"[13] which includes themes of future restoration (Psalm 126) or of judgment (Psalm 82).[14] Communal laments, in which the nation laments some communal disaster.[15] Both communal and individual laments typically but not always include the following elements: 1) address to God, 2) description of suffering, 3) cursing of the party responsible for suffering, 4) protestation of innocence or admission of guilt, 5) petition for divine assistance, 6) faith in God's receipt of prayer, 7) anticipation of divine response, and 8) a song of thanksgiving.[16][17] In general, the difference between the individual and communal subtypes can be distinguished by the use of the singular "I" or the plural "we". However, the "I" could also be characterizing an individual's personal experience that was reflective of the entire community.[18] Royal Psalms, dealing with such matters as the king's coronation, marriage and battles.[15] None of them mentions any specific king by name, and their origin and use remain obscure;[19] several psalms, especially ps.93–99, concern the kingship of God, and might relate to an annual ceremony in which Yahweh would be ritually reinstated as king. [20] Individual laments lamenting the fate of the particular individual who utters them. They are by far the most common type of psalm. They typically open with an invocation of Yahweh, followed by the lament itself and pleas for help, and often ending with an expression of confidence. A subset is the psalm of confidence, in which the psalmist expresses confidence that God will deliver him from evils and enemies.[15] Individual thanksgiving psalms, the obverse of individual laments, in which the psalmist thanks God for deliverance from personal distress.[15] In addition to these five major genres, Gunkel also recognised a number of minor psalm-types, including: communal thanksgiving psalms, in which the whole nation thanks God for deliverance; wisdom psalms, reflecting the Old Testament wisdom literature; pilgrimage psalms, sung by pilgrims on their way to Jerusalem; entrance and prophetic liturgies; and a group of mixed psalms which could not be assigned to any category.[21] Composition[edit] Scroll of the Psalms Origins[edit] The composition of the psalms spans at least five centuries, from Psalm 29, probably adapted from an entire Canaanite hymn to Baal which was transposed into a hymn to Yahweh,[22] to others which are clearly from the post-Exilic period. The majority originated in the southern kingdom of Judah and were associated with the Temple in Jerusalem, where they probably functioned as libretto during the Temple worship. Exactly how they did this is unclear, although there are indications in some of them: "Bind the festal procession with branches, up to the horns of the altar," suggests a connection with sacrifices, and "Let my prayer be counted as incense" suggests a connection with the offering of incense.[3] King David and the Psalms[edit] Seventy-three of the 150 psalms in the Bible are attributed to King David. One of the Dead Sea Scrolls (11QPsa) attributes 3600 tehilim (songs of praise) plus other compositions to him.[23] Nevertheless, there is no hard evidence for Davidic authorship of any of them.[2] "Davidic authorship is not accepted as historical fact by modern scholars," note Adele Berlinand Marc Zvi Brettler in the Jewish Study Bible, but is seen rather as the way in which the ancients "confirm[ed] the divine inspiration and authority" of the writings by linking them to well-known biblical figures.[4] Nine Psalms[citation needed] are attributed to David elsewhere in the Bible: 1 Chronicles 16:7-36 contains parts of Psalms 96, 105 and 106, and this passage is stated to be by David. Acts 4:25 states that Psalm 2 is by David. Acts 2:25-28 states that Psalm 16 is by David. Romans 4:6-8 contains parts of Psalms 32 and this passage is stated to be by David. Romans 11:9 contains part of Psalm 69, the apostle Paul stated that it is by David Hebrews 4:7 states that Psalm 95 is by David. Matthew 24:43-44, Mark 12:36 and Luke 20:42 Jesus attributes part of Psalm 110 to David. Acts 2:34-35 also states that Psalm 110 is by David. Poetic characteristics[edit] The biblical poetry of Psalms uses parallelism as its primary poetic device. Parallelism is a kind of rhyme, in which an idea is developed by the use of repetition, synonyms, or opposites.[24] Synonymous parallelism involves two lines expressing essentially the same idea. An example of synonymous parallelism: The LORD is my light and my salvation; whom shall I fear? The LORD is the stronghold of my life; of whom shall I be afraid? (Psalm 27:1) Two lines expressing opposites is known as antithetic parallelism. An example of antithetic parallelism: The LORD watches over the way of the righteous, but the way of the wicked will perish. (Psalm 1:6) Editorial Agenda[edit] Many scholars believe the individual Psalms were redacted into a single collection in second-temple times. It had long been recognized that the collection bore the imprint of an underlying message or 'meta-narrative', but that this message remained concealed, as Augustine said, 'The sequence of the Psalms seems to me to contain the secret of a mighty mystery, but its meaning has not been revealed to me.' (Enarr. on Ps. 150.1) Others pointed out the presence of concatenation, that is, adjacent Psalms sharing similar words and themes. In time, this approach developed into recognizing overarching themes shared by whole groups of psalms.[25] In 1985, Gerald H. Wilson's The Editing of the Hebrew Psalter proposed, by parallel with other ancient eastern hymn collections, that psalms at the beginning and end (or "seams") of the five books of Psalms have thematic significance, corresponding in particular with the placement of the royal psalms. He pointed out that there was a progression of ideas, from adversity, through the crux of the collection in the apparent failure of the covenant in Psalm 89, leading to a concert of praise at the end. He concluded that the collection was redacted to be a retrospective of the failure of the Davidic covenant, exhorting Israel to trust in God alone in a non-messianic future.[26] Walter Brueggemann suggested that the underlying editorial purpose was oriented rather towards wisdom or sapiential concerns, addressing the issues of how to live the life of faith. Psalm 1 calls the reader to a life of obedience; Psalm 73 (Brueggemann's crux psalm) faces the crisis when divine faithfulness is in doubt; Psalm 150 represents faith's triumph, when God is praised not for his rewards, but for his being.[27] In 1997, David. C. Mitchell's The Message of the Psalter took a quite different line. Building on the work of Wilson and others,[28] Mitchell proposed that the Psalter embodies an eschatological timetable like that of Zechariah 9–14.[29] This programme includes the gathering of exiled Israel by a bridegroom-king; his establishment of a kingdom; his violent death; Israel scattered in the wilderness, regathered and again imperilled, then rescued by a king from the heavens, who establishes his kingdom from Zion, brings peace and prosperity to the earth and receives the homage of the nations. Such a timetable is confirmed by parallels from the Baal Cycle to Roman-periodmidrashim. These three views—Wilson's non-messianic retrospective of the Davidic covenant, Brueggemann's sapiential instruction, and Mitchell's eschatologico-messianic programme—all have their followers, although the sapiential agenda has been somewhat eclipsed by the other two. Shortly before his untimely death in 2005, Wilson modified his position to allow for the existence of messianic prophecy within the Psalms' redactional agenda.[30] Mitchell's position remains largely unchanged, although he now sees the issue as identifying when the historical beginning of the Psalms turns to eschatology.[31] The ancient music of the Psalms[edit] The Psalms were written not merely as poems, but as songs for singing. More than a third of the psalms are addressed to the Director of Music. Some psalms exhort the worshipper to sing (e.g. Pss. 33:1-3; 92:1-3; 96:1-3; 98:1; 101:1; 150). Some headings denote the musical instruments on which the psalm should be played (Pss. 4, 5, 6, 8, 67). Some refer to singing at the sheminit or octave (Pss. 6, 12). And others preserve the name for ancient eastern modes, like mut la-ben(Death of the son; Ps. 9), ayelet ha-shachar (hind of the dawn; Ps. 22); shoshanim (Lilies; Ps. 45); or alamoth (Maidens?; Ps. 46). Despite the frequently-heard view that their ancient music is lost, the means to reconstruct it still exist. Fragments of temple psalmody are preserved in ancient church and synagogue chant, particularly in the tonus peregrinus melody to Psalm 114.[32] Cantillation signs, to record the melody sung, were in use since ancient times; evidence of them can be found in the manuscripts of the oldest extant copies of Psalms in the Dead Sea Scrolls and are even more extensive in theMasoretic text, which dates to the Early Middle Ages and whose Tiberian scribes claimed to be basing their work on temple-period signs. (See Moshe ben Asher's 'Song of the Vine' colophon to the Codex Cairensis). However, any knowledge of how to read these signs was lost in ancient times, and modern Bible translationsdo not include any musical notation.[33] Several attempts have been made to decode the Masoretic cantillation, but the most successful is that of Suzanne Haïk-Vantoura (1928–2000) in the last quarter of the 20th century.[34] Although some have dismissed Haïk-Vantoura's system, Mitchell has repeatedly defended it, showing that, when applied to the Masoretic cantillation of Psalm 114, it produces a melody recognizable as the tonus peregrinus of church and synagogue.[35] Mitchell includes musical transcriptions of the temple psalmody of Psalms 120–134 in his commentary on the Songs of Ascents. Themes[edit] Most individual psalms involve the praise of God – for his power and beneficence, for his creation of the world, and for his past acts of deliverance for Israel. The psalms envision a world in which everyone and everything will praise God, and God in turn will hear their prayers and respond. Worst of all is when God "hides his face" and refuses to respond, because this puts in question the efficacy of prayer which is the underlying assumption of the Book of Psalms.[36] Some psalms are called "maskil" (maschil) because in addition they impart wisdom. Most notable of these is Psalm 142 which is sometimes called the "Maskil of David", others include Psalm 32 and Psalm 78.[37] The term derives from maskil meaning "enlightened" or "wise". Later interpretation and influence[edit] David Playing the Harp by Jan de Bray, 1670. Hebrew text of Psalm 1:1-2 A Jewish man reads Psalms at theWestern Wall Overview[edit] Individual psalms were originally hymns, to be used on various occasions and at various sacred sites; later, some were anthologised, and might have been understood within the various anthologies (e.g., ps.123 as one of the Psalms of Ascent); finally, individual psalms might be understood within the Psalter as a whole, either narrating the life of David or providing instruction like the Torah. In later Jewish and Christian tradition, the psalms have come to be used as prayers, either individual or communal, as traditional expressions of religious feeling.[38] Use of the Psalms in Jewish ritual[edit] Some of the titles given to the Psalms in their ascriptions suggest their use in worship: Some bear the Hebrew designation shir (שיר; Greek ode, a song). Thirteen have this title. It means the flow of speech, as it were, in a straight line or in a regular strain. This title includes secular as well as sacred song. Fifty-eight Psalms bear the designation mizmor (מזמור; Greek ψαλμός psalmos, a psalm), a lyric ode, or a song set to music; a sacred song accompanied with a musical instrument. Psalm 145, and many others, have the designation tehillah (תהילה; Greek hymnos, a hymn), meaning a song of praise; a song the prominent thought of which is the praise of God. Tehillah is also the singular of the name of the book in Hebrew, Tehillim. Six Psalms (16, 56–60) have the title michtam (מכתם; "gold").[39] Rashi suggests that "michtam" refers to an item that a person carries with him at all times, hence, these Psalms contain concepts or ideas that are pertinent at every stage and setting throughout life, deemed vital as part of day-to-day spiritual awareness.[40] Psalm 7 (along with Habakkuk ch. 3)[41] bears the title shigayon (שיגיון). There are three interpretations:[42] (a) According to Rashi and others, this term stems from the root shegaga, meaning "mistake" – David committed some sin and is singing in the form of a prayer to redeem himself from it; (b) shigayon was a type of musical instrument; (c) Ibn Ezra considers the word to mean 'longing,' as in the verse in Proverbs 5:19[43] "tishge tamid." Psalms are used throughout traditional Jewish worship. Many complete Psalms and verses from Psalms appear in themorning services ("Shacharit"). The pesukei dezimra component incorporates Psalms 30, 100 and 145 – 150. Psalm 145 (commonly referred to as "Ashrei", which is really the first word of 2 verses appended to the beginning of the Psalm), is read three times every day: once in shacharit as part of pesukei dezimrah, as mentioned, once, along with Psalm 20, as part of the morning's concluding prayers, and once at the start of the Afternoon service. On Festival days and Sabbaths, instead of concluding the morning service, it precedes the Mussaf service. Psalms 95–99, 29, 92, and 93, along with some later readings, comprise the introduction ("Kabbalat Shabbat") to the Friday night service. Traditionally, a different "Psalm for the Day" – Shir shel yom – is read after the morning service each day of the week (starting Sunday, Psalms: 24, 48, 82, 94, 81, 93, 92). This is described in the Mishnah (the initial codification of the Jewish oral tradition) in the tractate "Tamid". According to the Talmud, these daily Psalms were originally recited on that day of the week by the Levites in the Temple in Jerusalem. From Rosh Chodesh Elul until Hoshanah Rabbah, Psalm 27 is recited twice daily following the morning and evening services. There is a Minhag (custom) to say Psalm 30 each morning of Chanukkah after Shacharit: some say this "instead" of the regular "Psalm for the Day", others say this additionally. When a Jew dies, a watch is kept over the body and Tehillim (Psalms) are recited constantly by sun or candlelight, until the burial service. Historically, this watch would be carried out by the immediate family – usually in shifts – but in contemporary practice, this service is provided by an employee of the funeral home orChevra kadisha. Many Jews complete the Book of Psalms on a weekly or monthly basis. Each week, some also say a Psalm connected to that week's events or the Torah portion read during that week. In addition, many Jews (notably Lubavitch, and other Chasidim) read the entire Book of Psalms prior to the morning service, on the Sabbath preceding the calculated appearance of the new moon. The reading of psalms is viewed in Jewish tradition as a vehicle for gaining God's favor. They are thus often specially recited in times of trouble, such as poverty, disease, or physical danger; in many synagogues, Psalms are recited after services for the security of the State of Israel. Note that Sefer ha-Chinuch[44] states that this practice is designed not to achieve favor, as such, but rather to inculcate belief in Divine Providence into one's consciousness – as consistent with Maimonides'general view on Providence. (Relatedly, the Hebrew verb for prayer – hitpalal התפלל – is in fact the reflexive form of palal פלל, to judge. Thus, "to pray" conveys the notion of "judging oneself": ultimately, the purpose of prayer – tefilah תפלה – is to transform ourselves; for the relationship between prayer and psalms – "tehillahand tefillah" – see S. R. Hirsch, Horeb §620. See also under Jewish services.) The Psalms in Christian worship[edit] Part of a series on Christianity JesusChrist [show] BibleFoundations [show] Theology[show] HistoryTradition [show] Related topics[show] DenominationsGroups [show]  Christianity portal vte St. Florian's psalter, 14th or 15th century, Old Polish Translation Children singing and playing music, illustration of Psalm 150 (Laudate Dominum). New Testament references show that the earliest Christians used the Psalms in worship, and the Psalms have remained an important part of worship in most Christian Churches. The Eastern Orthodox, Catholic, Presbyterian,Lutheran and Anglican Churches have always made systematic use of the Psalms, with a cycle for the recitation of all or most of them over the course of one or more weeks. In the early centuries of the Church, it was expected that any candidate for bishop would be able to recite the entire Psalter from memory, something they often learned automatically[45] during their time as monks. Paul the Apostle quotes psalms (specifically Psalms 14 and 53, which are nearly identical) as the basis for his theory of original sin, and includes the scripture in the Epistle to the Romans, chapter 3. Several conservative Protestant denominations sing only the Psalms (some churches also sing the small number of hymns found elsewhere in the Bible) in worship, and do not accept the use of any non-Biblical hymns; examples are the Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America, the Presbyterian Reformed Church (North America) and theFree Church of Scotland (Continuing). Some Psalms are among the best-known and best-loved passages of Scripture, with a popularity extending well beyond regular church-goers[citation needed][peacock term]. Psalm 22 is of particular importance during the season of Lent as a Psalm of continued faith during severe testing. Psalm 23, The LORD is My Shepherd, offers an immediately appealing message of comfort and is widely chosen for church funeral services, either as a reading or in one of several popular hymn settings; Psalm 51, Have mercy on me O God, called the Miserere from the first word in its Latin version, is by far the most sung Psalm of Orthodoxy[citation needed], in both Divine Liturgy and Hours, in the sacrament of repentance or confession, and in other settings; Psalm 82 is found in the Book of Common Prayer as a funeral recitation. Psalm 103, Bless the Lord, O my soul, is one of the best-known[citation needed] prayers of praise. The psalm was adapted for the musical Godspell; Psalm 137, By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down and wept, is a moody meditation upon living in slavery, and has been used in at least one spiritual[citation needed], as well as one well-known reggae song;[46] the Orthodox church often uses this hymn during Lent. This psalm was adapted for the song On the Willows in the musical Godspell. New translations and settings of the Psalms continue to be produced. An individually printed volume of Psalms for use in Christian religious rituals is called a Psalter. Eastern Orthodox Christianity[edit] See also: Kathisma Orthodox Christians and Greek-Catholics (Eastern Catholics who follow the Byzantine rite), have long made the Psalms an integral part of their corporate and private prayers. The official version of the Psalter used by the Orthodox Church is theSeptuagint. To facilitate its reading, the 150 Psalms are divided into 20 kathismata (Greek: καθίσματα; Slavonic: каѳисмы,kafismy; lit. "sittings") and each kathisma (Greek: κάθισμα; Slavonic: каѳисма, kafisma) is further subdivided into threestases (Greek: στάσεις, staseis lit. "standings", sing. στάσις, stasis), so-called because the faithful stand at the end of eachstasis for the Glory to the Father .... At Vespers and Matins, different kathismata are read at different times of the liturgical year and on different days of the week, according to the Church's calendar, so that all 150 psalms (20 kathismata) are read in the course of a week. DuringGreat Lent, the number of kathismata is increased so that the entire Psalter is read twice a week. In the twentieth century, some lay Christians have adopted a continuous reading of the Psalms on weekdays, praying the whole book in four weeks. Aside from kathisma readings, Psalms occupy a prominent place in every other Orthodox service including the services of the Hours and the Divine Liturgy. In particular, the penitential Psalm 50 is very widely used. Fragments of Psalms and individual verses are used as Prokimena (introductions to Scriptural readings) and Stichera. The bulk of Vespers would still be composed of Psalms even if the kathisma were to be disregarded; Psalm 119, "The Psalm of the Law", is the centerpiece of Matins on Saturdays, some Sundays, and the Funeral service. The entire book of Psalms is traditionally read out loud or chanted at the side of the deceased during the time leading up to the funeral, mirroring Jewish tradition. Oriental Christianity[edit] Several branches of Oriental Orthodox and those Eastern Catholics who follow one of the Oriental Rites will chant the entire Psalter during the course of a day during the Daily Office. This practice continues to be a requirement of monastics in the Oriental churches. Roman Catholic usage[edit] The Psalms have always been an important part of Catholic liturgy. The Liturgy of the Hours is centered on chanting or recitation of the Psalms, using fixed melodic formulas known as psalm tones. Early Catholics employed the Psalms widely in their individual prayers also; however, as knowledge of Latin (the language of theRoman Rite) became uncommon, this practice ceased among the unlearned. However, until the end of the Middle Ages, it was not unknown for the laity to join in the singing of the Little Office of Our Lady, which was a shortened version of the Liturgy of the Hours providing a fixed daily cycle of twenty-five psalms to be recited, and nine other psalms divided across Matins. The work of Bishop Richard Challoner in providing devotional materials in English meant that many of the psalms were familiar to English-speaking Catholics from the eighteenth century onwards. Challoner translated the entirety of the Lady Office into English, as well as Sunday Vespers and daily Compline. He also provided other individual Psalms such as 129/130 for prayer in his devotional books. Challoner is also noted for revising the Douay-Rheims Bible, and the translations he used in his devotional books are taken from this work. Until the Second Vatican Council the Psalms were either recited on a one-week or, less commonly (as in the case of Ambrosian rite), two-week cycle. Different one-week schemata were employed: most secular clergy followed the Roman distribution, while Monastic Houses almost universally followed that of St Benedict, with only a few congregations (such as the Benedictines of St Maur) following individualistic arrangements. The Breviary introduced in 1974 distributed the psalms over a four-week cycle. Monastic usage varies widely. Some use the four-week cycle of the secular clergy, many retain a one-week cycle, either following St Benedict's scheme or another of their own devising, while others opt for some other arrangement. Official approval was also given to other arrangements (see "Short" Breviaries in the 20th and early 21st century America for an in-progress study) by which the complete Psalter is recited in a one-week or two-week cycle. These arrangements are used principally by Catholic contemplative religious orders, such as that of the Trappists (see for example the Divine Office schedule at New Melleray Abbey). The General Instruction of the Liturgy of the Hours, 122 sanctions three modes of singing/recitation for the Psalms: directly (all sing or recite the entire psalm); antiphonally (two choirs or sections of the congregation sing or recite alternate verses or strophes); and responsorially (the cantor or choir sings or recites the verses while the congregation sings or recites a given response after each verse). Of these three the antiphonal mode is the most widely followed. Over the centuries, the use of complete Psalms in the liturgy declined. After the Second Vatican Council (which also permitted the use of vernacular languages in the liturgy), longer psalm texts were reintroduced into the Mass, during the readings. The revision of the Roman Missal after the Second Vatican Councilreintroduced the singing or recitation of a more substantial section of a Psalm, in some cases an entire Psalm, after the first Reading from Scripture. This Psalm, called the Responsorial Psalm, is usually sung or recited responsorially, although the General Instruction of the Roman Missal, 61 permits direct recitation. Protestant usage[edit] Psalm 1 in a form of the Sternhold and Hopkins version widespread in Anglican usage before the English Civil War (1628 printing). It was from this version that the armies sang before going into battle. Following the Protestant Reformation, versified translations of many of the Psalms were set as hymns. These were particularly popular in the Calvinist tradition, where in the past they were typically sung to the exclusion of hymns. Calvinhimself made some French translations of the Psalms for church usage, but the completed Psalter eventually used in church services consisted exclusively of translations by Clément Marot and Théodore de Bèze, on melodies by a number of composers, including Louis Bourgeois and a certain Maistre Pierre. Martin Luther's A Mighty Fortress Is Our God is based on Psalm 46. Among famous hymn settings of the Psalter were the Scottish Psalter and the paraphrases by Isaac Watts. The first book printed in North America was a collection of Psalm settings, the Bay Psalm Book (1640). By the 20th century, they were mostly replaced by hymns in church services. However, the Psalms are popular for private devotion among many Protestants and still used in many churches for traditional worship.[47] There exists in some circles a custom of reading one Psalm and one chapter of Proverbs a day, corresponding to the day of the month. Metrical Psalms are still very popular among many Reformed Churches. Anglican usage[edit] Anglican chant is a method of singing prose versions of the Psalms. In the early 17th century, when the King James Bible was introduced, the metrical arrangements by Thomas Sternhold and John Hopkins were also popular and were provided with printed tunes. This version and the New Version of the Psalms of David by Tate and Brady produced in the late seventeenth century (see article on Metrical Psalter) remained the normal congregational way of singing psalms in the Church of England until well into the nineteenth century. In Great Britain, the Coverdale psalter still lies at the heart of daily worship in Cathedrals and many parish churches. The new Common Worship service book has a companion psalter in modern English. The version of the Psalter in the American Book of Common Prayer prior to the 1979 edition is a sixteenth-centuryCoverdale Psalter. The Psalter in the American Book of Common Prayer of 1979 is a new translation, with some attempt to keep the rhythms of the Coverdale Psalter. Psalms in the Rastafari movement[edit] The Psalms are one of the most popular parts of the Bible among followers of the Rastafari movement.[48] Rasta singerPrince Far I released an atmospheric spoken version of the psalms, Psalms for I, set to a roots reggae backdrop from The Aggrovators.  The Book of Psalms (Hebrew: תְּהִלִּים‎ or תהילים, Tehillim, "praises"), commonly referred to simply as Psalms or "the Psalms", is the first book of the Ketuvim ("Writings"), the third section of the Hebrew Bible, and a book of the ChristianOld Testament.[1] The title is derived from the Greek translation, ψαλμοί psalmoi, meaning "instrumental music" and, by extension, "the words accompanying the music."[2] The book is an anthology of individual psalms, with 150 in the Jewish and Western Christian tradition and more in the Eastern Christian churches.[3][4] Many of the psalms are linked to the name of King David, although his authorship is not accepted by some modern Bible scholars.[4] Contents  [hide]  1 Structure 1.1 Benedictions 1.2 Superscriptions and attributions 1.3 Numbering 1.4 Additional psalms 2 Summary 3 Composition 3.1 Origins 3.2 King David and the Psalms 3.3 Poetic characteristics 3.4 Editorial Agenda 4 The ancient music of the Psalms 5 Themes 6 Later interpretation and influence 6.1 Overview 6.2 Use of the Psalms in Jewish ritual 6.3 The Psalms in Christian worship 6.4 Eastern Orthodox Christianity 6.5 Oriental Christianity 6.6 Roman Catholic usage 6.7 Protestant usage 6.8 Anglican usage 6.9 Psalms in the Rastafari movement 6.10 Psalms in Islam 7 Psalms set to music 7.1 Multiple psalms as a single composition 7.2 Individual psalm settings 7.3 Bach 7.4 Psalm verses 7.5 Contemporary popular music 8 See also 9 References 10 Bibliography 11 External links 11.1 Translations 11.2 Commentary and others Structure[edit] For the Orthodox Christian division into twenty kathismata, see below. An 1880 Baxter process illustration of Psalm 23, from the Religious Tract Society's magazine The Sunday at Home. Benedictions[edit] The Book of Psalms is divided into five sections, each closing with a doxology (i.e., a benediction) – these divisions were probably introduced by the final editors to imitate the five-fold division of the Torah: Book 1 (Psalms 1–41) Book 2 (Psalms 42–72) Book 3 (Psalms 73–89) Book 4 (Psalms 90–106) Book 5 (Psalms 107–150)[5] Superscriptions and attributions[edit] Many psalms (116 of the 150) have individual superscriptions (titles), ranging from lengthy comments to a single word. Over a third appear to be musical directions, addressed to the "leader" or "choirmaster," including such statements as "with stringed instruments" and "according to lilies." Others appear to be references to types of musical composition, such as "A psalm" and "Song," or directions regarding the occasion for using the psalm ("On the dedication of the temple," "For the memorial offering," etc.). Many superscriptions carry the names of individuals, the most common (73 psalms) being of David, and thirteen of these relate explicitly to incidents in the king's life.[6] Others named include Moses (1), Asaph (12), the Sons of Korah (11) and Solomon (2). A natural way of understanding these attributions is as a claim to authorship,[7]but it could also mean "to David" or "for David".[8] Numbering[edit] Hebrew numbering (Masoretic) Greek numbering (Septuagint or Vulgate) 1–8 1–8 9–10 9 11–113 10–112 114–115 113 116 114–115 117–146 116–145 147 146–147 148–150 148–150 Psalms are usually identified by a sequence number, often preceded by the abbreviation "Ps." Numbering of the Psalms differs—mostly by one digit, see table—between the Hebrew (Masoretic) and Greek (Septuagint) manuscripts. Protestant translations (Lutheran, Anglican, Calvinist) use the Hebrew numbering, but other Christian traditions vary: Catholic official liturgical texts follow the Greek numbering Catholic modern translations often use the Hebrew numbering (noting the Greek number) Eastern Orthodox translations use the Greek numbering (noting the Hebrew number) For the remainder of this article, the Hebrew numbering is used, unless otherwise noted. The variance between Massorah and Septuagint texts in this numeration is likely enough due to a gradual neglect of the original poetic form of the Psalms; such neglect was occasioned by liturgical uses and carelessness of copyists. It is admitted by all that Pss. 9 and 10 were originally a single acrostic poem; they have been wrongly separated by Massorah, rightly united by the Septuagint and Vulgate. On the other hand, Ps. 144 is made up of two songs — verses 1–11 and 12–15.[9] Pss. 42 and 43 are shown by identity of subject (yearning for the house of Jahweh), of metrical structure and of refrain (cf. Heb. Ps. 42:6, 12; 43:5), to be three strophes of one and the same poem. The Hebrew text is correct in counting as one Ps. 146 and Ps. 147. Later liturgical usage would seem to have split up these and not a few other psalms. Zenner combines into what he deems were the original choral odes: Pss. 1, 2, 3, 4; 6 + 13; 9 + 10; 19, 20, 21; 56 + 57; 69 + 70; 114 + 115; 148, 149, 150.[10] A choral ode would seem to have been the original form of Pss. 14 + 70. The two strophes and the epode are Ps. 14; the two antistrophes are Ps. 70.[11] It is noteworthy that, on the breaking up of the original ode, each portion crept twice into the Psalter: Ps. 14 = 53, Ps. 70 = 40:14–18. Other such duplicated psalms are Ps. 108:2–6 = Ps. 57:8–12; Ps. 108:7–14 = Ps. 60:7–14; Ps. 71:1–3 = Ps. 31:2–4. This loss of the original form of some of the psalms is allowed by the Biblical Commission (1 May 1910) to have been due to liturgical uses, neglect of copyists, or other causes. Additional psalms[edit] The Septuagint bible, present in Eastern Orthodox churches, includes a Psalm 151; a Hebrew version of this was found in the Psalms Scroll of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Some versions of the Peshitta (the bible used in Syriac churches in the Middle East) include Psalms 152–155. There are also the Psalms of Solomon, which are a further 18 psalms of Jewish origin, likely originally written in Hebrew, but surviving only in Greek and Syriac translation. These and other indications suggest that the current Western Christian and Jewish collection of 150 psalms were selected from a wider set. Summary[edit] Hermann Gunkel's pioneering form-critical work on the psalms sought to provide a new and meaningful context in which to interpret individual psalms – not by looking at their literary context within the Psalter (which he did not see as significant), but by bringing together psalms of the same genre (Gattung) from throughout the Psalter. Gunkel divided the psalms into five primary types: Hymns, songs of praise for God's work in creation or in history. They typically open with a call to praise, describe the motivation for praise, and conclude with a repetition of the call. Two sub-categories are "enthronement psalms," celebrating the enthronement of Yahweh as king, and Zion psalms, glorifying MountZion, God's dwelling-place in Jerusalem.[12] Gunkel also described a special subset of "eschatological hymns"[13] which includes themes of future restoration (Psalm 126) or of judgment (Psalm 82).[14] Communal laments, in which the nation laments some communal disaster.[15] Both communal and individual laments typically but not always include the following elements: 1) address to God, 2) description of suffering, 3) cursing of the party responsible for suffering, 4) protestation of innocence or admission of guilt, 5) petition for divine assistance, 6) faith in God's receipt of prayer, 7) anticipation of divine response, and 8) a song of thanksgiving.[16][17] In general, the difference between the individual and communal subtypes can be distinguished by the use of the singular "I" or the plural "we". However, the "I" could also be characterizing an individual's personal experience that was reflective of the entire community.[18] Royal Psalms, dealing with such matters as the king's coronation, marriage and battles.[15] None of them mentions any specific king by name, and their origin and use remain obscure;[19] several psalms, especially ps.93–99, concern the kingship of God, and might relate to an annual ceremony in which Yahweh would be ritually reinstated as king. [20] Individual laments lamenting the fate of the particular individual who utters them. They are by far the most common type of psalm. They typically open with an invocation of Yahweh, followed by the lament itself and pleas for help, and often ending with an expression of confidence. A subset is the psalm of confidence, in which the psalmist expresses confidence that God will deliver him from evils and enemies.[15] Individual thanksgiving psalms, the obverse of individual laments, in which the psalmist thanks God for deliverance from personal distress.[15] In addition to these five major genres, Gunkel also recognised a number of minor psalm-types, including: communal thanksgiving psalms, in which the whole nation thanks God for deliverance; wisdom psalms, reflecting the Old Testament wisdom literature; pilgrimage psalms, sung by pilgrims on their way to Jerusalem; entrance and prophetic liturgies; and a group of mixed psalms which could not be assigned to any category.[21] Composition[edit] Scroll of the Psalms Origins[edit] The composition of the psalms spans at least five centuries, from Psalm 29, probably adapted from an entire Canaanite hymn to Baal which was transposed into a hymn to Yahweh,[22] to others which are clearly from the post-Exilic period. The majority originated in the southern kingdom of Judah and were associated with the Temple in Jerusalem, where they probably functioned as libretto during the Temple worship. Exactly how they did this is unclear, although there are indications in some of them: "Bind the festal procession with branches, up to the horns of the altar," suggests a connection with sacrifices, and "Let my prayer be counted as incense" suggests a connection with the offering of incense.[3] King David and the Psalms[edit] Seventy-three of the 150 psalms in the Bible are attributed to King David. One of the Dead Sea Scrolls (11QPsa) attributes 3600 tehilim (songs of praise) plus other compositions to him.[23] Nevertheless, there is no hard evidence for Davidic authorship of any of them.[2] "Davidic authorship is not accepted as historical fact by modern scholars," note Adele Berlinand Marc Zvi Brettler in the Jewish Study Bible, but is seen rather as the way in which the ancients "confirm[ed] the divine inspiration and authority" of the writings by linking them to well-known biblical figures.[4] Nine Psalms[citation needed] are attributed to David elsewhere in the Bible: 1 Chronicles 16:7-36 contains parts of Psalms 96, 105 and 106, and this passage is stated to be by David. Acts 4:25 states that Psalm 2 is by David. Acts 2:25-28 states that Psalm 16 is by David. Romans 4:6-8 contains parts of Psalms 32 and this passage is stated to be by David. Romans 11:9 contains part of Psalm 69, the apostle Paul stated that it is by David Hebrews 4:7 states that Psalm 95 is by David. Matthew 24:43-44, Mark 12:36 and Luke 20:42 Jesus attributes part of Psalm 110 to David. Acts 2:34-35 also states that Psalm 110 is by David. Poetic characteristics[edit] The biblical poetry of Psalms uses parallelism as its primary poetic device. Parallelism is a kind of rhyme, in which an idea is developed by the use of repetition, synonyms, or opposites.[24] Synonymous parallelism involves two lines expressing essentially the same idea. An example of synonymous parallelism: The LORD is my light and my salvation; whom shall I fear? The LORD is the stronghold of my life; of whom shall I be afraid? (Psalm 27:1) Two lines expressing opposites is known as antithetic parallelism. An example of antithetic parallelism: The LORD watches over the way of the righteous, but the way of the wicked will perish. (Psalm 1:6) Editorial Agenda[edit] Many scholars believe the individual Psalms were redacted into a single collection in second-temple times. It had long been recognized that the collection bore the imprint of an underlying message or 'meta-narrative', but that this message remained concealed, as Augustine said, 'The sequence of the Psalms seems to me to contain the secret of a mighty mystery, but its meaning has not been revealed to me.' (Enarr. on Ps. 150.1) Others pointed out the presence of concatenation, that is, adjacent Psalms sharing similar words and themes. In time, this approach developed into recognizing overarching themes shared by whole groups of psalms.[25] In 1985, Gerald H. Wilson's The Editing of the Hebrew Psalter proposed, by parallel with other ancient eastern hymn collections, that psalms at the beginning and end (or "seams") of the five books of Psalms have thematic significance, corresponding in particular with the placement of the royal psalms. He pointed out that there was a progression of ideas, from adversity, through the crux of the collection in the apparent failure of the covenant in Psalm 89, leading to a concert of praise at the end. He concluded that the collection was redacted to be a retrospective of the failure of the Davidic covenant, exhorting Israel to trust in God alone in a non-messianic future.[26] Walter Brueggemann suggested that the underlying editorial purpose was oriented rather towards wisdom or sapiential concerns, addressing the issues of how to live the life of faith. Psalm 1 calls the reader to a life of obedience; Psalm 73 (Brueggemann's crux psalm) faces the crisis when divine faithfulness is in doubt; Psalm 150 represents faith's triumph, when God is praised not for his rewards, but for his being.[27] In 1997, David. C. Mitchell's The Message of the Psalter took a quite different line. Building on the work of Wilson and others,[28] Mitchell proposed that the Psalter embodies an eschatological timetable like that of Zechariah 9–14.[29] This programme includes the gathering of exiled Israel by a bridegroom-king; his establishment of a kingdom; his violent death; Israel scattered in the wilderness, regathered and again imperilled, then rescued by a king from the heavens, who establishes his kingdom from Zion, brings peace and prosperity to the earth and receives the homage of the nations. Such a timetable is confirmed by parallels from the Baal Cycle to Roman-periodmidrashim. These three views—Wilson's non-messianic retrospective of the Davidic covenant, Brueggemann's sapiential instruction, and Mitchell's eschatologico-messianic programme—all have their followers, although the sapiential agenda has been somewhat eclipsed by the other two. Shortly before his untimely death in 2005, Wilson modified his position to allow for the existence of messianic prophecy within the Psalms' redactional agenda.[30] Mitchell's position remains largely unchanged, although he now sees the issue as identifying when the historical beginning of the Psalms turns to eschatology.[31] The ancient music of the Psalms[edit] The Psalms were written not merely as poems, but as songs for singing. More than a third of the psalms are addressed to the Director of Music. Some psalms exhort the worshipper to sing (e.g. Pss. 33:1-3; 92:1-3; 96:1-3; 98:1; 101:1; 150). Some headings denote the musical instruments on which the psalm should be played (Pss. 4, 5, 6, 8, 67). Some refer to singing at the sheminit or octave (Pss. 6, 12). And others preserve the name for ancient eastern modes, like mut la-ben(Death of the son; Ps. 9), ayelet ha-shachar (hind of the dawn; Ps. 22); shoshanim (Lilies; Ps. 45); or alamoth (Maidens?; Ps. 46). Despite the frequently-heard view that their ancient music is lost, the means to reconstruct it still exist. Fragments of temple psalmody are preserved in ancient church and synagogue chant, particularly in the tonus peregrinus melody to Psalm 114.[32] Cantillation signs, to record the melody sung, were in use since ancient times; evidence of them can be found in the manuscripts of the oldest extant copies of Psalms in the Dead Sea Scrolls and are even more extensive in theMasoretic text, which dates to the Early Middle Ages and whose Tiberian scribes claimed to be basing their work on temple-period signs. (See Moshe ben Asher's 'Song of the Vine' colophon to the Codex Cairensis). However, any knowledge of how to read these signs was lost in ancient times, and modern Bible translationsdo not include any musical notation.[33] Several attempts have been made to decode the Masoretic cantillation, but the most successful is that of Suzanne Haïk-Vantoura (1928–2000) in the last quarter of the 20th century.[34] Although some have dismissed Haïk-Vantoura's system, Mitchell has repeatedly defended it, showing that, when applied to the Masoretic cantillation of Psalm 114, it produces a melody recognizable as the tonus peregrinus of church and synagogue.[35] Mitchell includes musical transcriptions of the temple psalmody of Psalms 120–134 in his commentary on the Songs of Ascents. Themes[edit] Most individual psalms involve the praise of God – for his power and beneficence, for his creation of the world, and for his past acts of deliverance for Israel. The psalms envision a world in which everyone and everything will praise God, and God in turn will hear their prayers and respond. Worst of all is when God "hides his face" and refuses to respond, because this puts in question the efficacy of prayer which is the underlying assumption of the Book of Psalms.[36] Some psalms are called "maskil" (maschil) because in addition they impart wisdom. Most notable of these is Psalm 142 which is sometimes called the "Maskil of David", others include Psalm 32 and Psalm 78.[37] The term derives from maskil meaning "enlightened" or "wise". Later interpretation and influence[edit] David Playing the Harp by Jan de Bray, 1670. Hebrew text of Psalm 1:1-2 A Jewish man reads Psalms at theWestern Wall Overview[edit] Individual psalms were originally hymns, to be used on various occasions and at various sacred sites; later, some were anthologised, and might have been understood within the various anthologies (e.g., ps.123 as one of the Psalms of Ascent); finally, individual psalms might be understood within the Psalter as a whole, either narrating the life of David or providing instruction like the Torah. In later Jewish and Christian tradition, the psalms have come to be used as prayers, either individual or communal, as traditional expressions of religious feeling.[38] Use of the Psalms in Jewish ritual[edit] Some of the titles given to the Psalms in their ascriptions suggest their use in worship: Some bear the Hebrew designation shir (שיר; Greek ode, a song). Thirteen have this title. It means the flow of speech, as it were, in a straight line or in a regular strain. This title includes secular as well as sacred song. Fifty-eight Psalms bear the designation mizmor (מזמור; Greek ψαλμός psalmos, a psalm), a lyric ode, or a song set to music; a sacred song accompanied with a musical instrument. Psalm 145, and many others, have the designation tehillah (תהילה; Greek hymnos, a hymn), meaning a song of praise; a song the prominent thought of which is the praise of God. Tehillah is also the singular of the name of the book in Hebrew, Tehillim. Six Psalms (16, 56–60) have the title michtam (מכתם; "gold").[39] Rashi suggests that "michtam" refers to an item that a person carries with him at all times, hence, these Psalms contain concepts or ideas that are pertinent at every stage and setting throughout life, deemed vital as part of day-to-day spiritual awareness.[40] Psalm 7 (along with Habakkuk ch. 3)[41] bears the title shigayon (שיגיון). There are three interpretations:[42] (a) According to Rashi and others, this term stems from the root shegaga, meaning "mistake" – David committed some sin and is singing in the form of a prayer to redeem himself from it; (b) shigayon was a type of musical instrument; (c) Ibn Ezra considers the word to mean 'longing,' as in the verse in Proverbs 5:19[43] "tishge tamid." Psalms are used throughout traditional Jewish worship. Many complete Psalms and verses from Psalms appear in themorning services ("Shacharit"). The pesukei dezimra component incorporates Psalms 30, 100 and 145 – 150. Psalm 145 (commonly referred to as "Ashrei", which is really the first word of 2 verses appended to the beginning of the Psalm), is read three times every day: once in shacharit as part of pesukei dezimrah, as mentioned, once, along with Psalm 20, as part of the morning's concluding prayers, and once at the start of the Afternoon service. On Festival days and Sabbaths, instead of concluding the morning service, it precedes the Mussaf service. Psalms 95–99, 29, 92, and 93, along with some later readings, comprise the introduction ("Kabbalat Shabbat") to the Friday night service. Traditionally, a different "Psalm for the Day" – Shir shel yom – is read after the morning service each day of the week (starting Sunday, Psalms: 24, 48, 82, 94, 81, 93, 92). This is described in the Mishnah (the initial codification of the Jewish oral tradition) in the tractate "Tamid". According to the Talmud, these daily Psalms were originally recited on that day of the week by the Levites in the Temple in Jerusalem. From Rosh Chodesh Elul until Hoshanah Rabbah, Psalm 27 is recited twice daily following the morning and evening services. There is a Minhag (custom) to say Psalm 30 each morning of Chanukkah after Shacharit: some say this "instead" of the regular "Psalm for the Day", others say this additionally. When a Jew dies, a watch is kept over the body and Tehillim (Psalms) are recited constantly by sun or candlelight, until the burial service. Historically, this watch would be carried out by the immediate family – usually in shifts – but in contemporary practice, this service is provided by an employee of the funeral home orChevra kadisha. Many Jews complete the Book of Psalms on a weekly or monthly basis. Each week, some also say a Psalm connected to that week's events or the Torah portion read during that week. In addition, many Jews (notably Lubavitch, and other Chasidim) read the entire Book of Psalms prior to the morning service, on the Sabbath preceding the calculated appearance of the new moon. The reading of psalms is viewed in Jewish tradition as a vehicle for gaining God's favor. They are thus often specially recited in times of trouble, such as poverty, disease, or physical danger; in many synagogues, Psalms are recited after services for the security of the State of Israel. Note that Sefer ha-Chinuch[44] states that this practice is designed not to achieve favor, as such, but rather to inculcate belief in Divine Providence into one's consciousness – as consistent with Maimonides'general view on Providence. (Relatedly, the Hebrew verb for prayer – hitpalal התפלל – is in fact the reflexive form of palal פלל, to judge. Thus, "to pray" conveys the notion of "judging oneself": ultimately, the purpose of prayer – tefilah תפלה – is to transform ourselves; for the relationship between prayer and psalms – "tehillahand tefillah" – see S. R. Hirsch, Horeb §620. See also under Jewish services.) The Psalms in Christian worship[edit] Part of a series on Christianity JesusChrist [show] BibleFoundations [show] Theology[show] HistoryTradition [show] Related topics[show] DenominationsGroups [show]  Christianity portal vte St. Florian's psalter, 14th or 15th century, Old Polish Translation Children singing and playing music, illustration of Psalm 150 (Laudate Dominum). New Testament references show that the earliest Christians used the Psalms in worship, and the Psalms have remained an important part of worship in most Christian Churches. The Eastern Orthodox, Catholic, Presbyterian,Lutheran and Anglican Churches have always made systematic use of the Psalms, with a cycle for the recitation of all or most of them over the course of one or more weeks. In the early centuries of the Church, it was expected that any candidate for bishop would be able to recite the entire Psalter from memory, something they often learned automatically[45] during their time as monks. Paul the Apostle quotes psalms (specifically Psalms 14 and 53, which are nearly identical) as the basis for his theory of original sin, and includes the scripture in the Epistle to the Romans, chapter 3. Several conservative Protestant denominations sing only the Psalms (some churches also sing the small number of hymns found elsewhere in the Bible) in worship, and do not accept the use of any non-Biblical hymns; examples are the Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America, the Presbyterian Reformed Church (North America) and theFree Church of Scotland (Continuing). Some Psalms are among the best-known and best-loved passages of Scripture, with a popularity extending well beyond regular church-goers[citation needed][peacock term]. Psalm 22 is of particular importance during the season of Lent as a Psalm of continued faith during severe testing. Psalm 23, The LORD is My Shepherd, offers an immediately appealing message of comfort and is widely chosen for church funeral services, either as a reading or in one of several popular hymn settings; Psalm 51, Have mercy on me O God, called the Miserere from the first word in its Latin version, is by far the most sung Psalm of Orthodoxy[citation needed], in both Divine Liturgy and Hours, in the sacrament of repentance or confession, and in other settings; Psalm 82 is found in the Book of Common Prayer as a funeral recitation. Psalm 103, Bless the Lord, O my soul, is one of the best-known[citation needed] prayers of praise. The psalm was adapted for the musical Godspell; Psalm 137, By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down and wept, is a moody meditation upon living in slavery, and has been used in at least one spiritual[citation needed], as well as one well-known reggae song;[46] the Orthodox church often uses this hymn during Lent. This psalm was adapted for the song On the Willows in the musical Godspell. New translations and settings of the Psalms continue to be produced. An individually printed volume of Psalms for use in Christian religious rituals is called a Psalter. Eastern Orthodox Christianity[edit] See also: Kathisma Orthodox Christians and Greek-Catholics (Eastern Catholics who follow the Byzantine rite), have long made the Psalms an integral part of their corporate and private prayers. The official version of the Psalter used by the Orthodox Church is theSeptuagint. To facilitate its reading, the 150 Psalms are divided into 20 kathismata (Greek: καθίσματα; Slavonic: каѳисмы,kafismy; lit. "sittings") and each kathisma (Greek: κάθισμα; Slavonic: каѳисма, kafisma) is further subdivided into threestases (Greek: στάσεις, staseis lit. "standings", sing. στάσις, stasis), so-called because the faithful stand at the end of eachstasis for the Glory to the Father .... At Vespers and Matins, different kathismata are read at different times of the liturgical year and on different days of the week, according to the Church's calendar, so that all 150 psalms (20 kathismata) are read in the course of a week. DuringGreat Lent, the number of kathismata is increased so that the entire Psalter is read twice a week. In the twentieth century, some lay Christians have adopted a continuous reading of the Psalms on weekdays, praying the whole book in four weeks. Aside from kathisma readings, Psalms occupy a prominent place in every other Orthodox service including the services of the Hours and the Divine Liturgy. In particular, the penitential Psalm 50 is very widely used. Fragments of Psalms and individual verses are used as Prokimena (introductions to Scriptural readings) and Stichera. The bulk of Vespers would still be composed of Psalms even if the kathisma were to be disregarded; Psalm 119, "The Psalm of the Law", is the centerpiece of Matins on Saturdays, some Sundays, and the Funeral service. The entire book of Psalms is traditionally read out loud or chanted at the side of the deceased during the time leading up to the funeral, mirroring Jewish tradition. Oriental Christianity[edit] Several branches of Oriental Orthodox and those Eastern Catholics who follow one of the Oriental Rites will chant the entire Psalter during the course of a day during the Daily Office. This practice continues to be a requirement of monastics in the Oriental churches. Roman Catholic usage[edit] The Psalms have always been an important part of Catholic liturgy. The Liturgy of the Hours is centered on chanting or recitation of the Psalms, using fixed melodic formulas known as psalm tones. Early Catholics employed the Psalms widely in their individual prayers also; however, as knowledge of Latin (the language of theRoman Rite) became uncommon, this practice ceased among the unlearned. However, until the end of the Middle Ages, it was not unknown for the laity to join in the singing of the Little Office of Our Lady, which was a shortened version of the Liturgy of the Hours providing a fixed daily cycle of twenty-five psalms to be recited, and nine other psalms divided across Matins. The work of Bishop Richard Challoner in providing devotional materials in English meant that many of the psalms were familiar to English-speaking Catholics from the eighteenth century onwards. Challoner translated the entirety of the Lady Office into English, as well as Sunday Vespers and daily Compline. He also provided other individual Psalms such as 129/130 for prayer in his devotional books. Challoner is also noted for revising the Douay-Rheims Bible, and the translations he used in his devotional books are taken from this work. Until the Second Vatican Council the Psalms were either recited on a one-week or, less commonly (as in the case of Ambrosian rite), two-week cycle. Different one-week schemata were employed: most secular clergy followed the Roman distribution, while Monastic Houses almost universally followed that of St Benedict, with only a few congregations (such as the Benedictines of St Maur) following individualistic arrangements. The Breviary introduced in 1974 distributed the psalms over a four-week cycle. Monastic usage varies widely. Some use the four-week cycle of the secular clergy, many retain a one-week cycle, either following St Benedict's scheme or another of their own devising, while others opt for some other arrangement. Official approval was also given to other arrangements (see "Short" Breviaries in the 20th and early 21st century America for an in-progress study) by which the complete Psalter is recited in a one-week or two-week cycle. These arrangements are used principally by Catholic contemplative religious orders, such as that of the Trappists (see for example the Divine Office schedule at New Melleray Abbey). The General Instruction of the Liturgy of the Hours, 122 sanctions three modes of singing/recitation for the Psalms: directly (all sing or recite the entire psalm); antiphonally (two choirs or sections of the congregation sing or recite alternate verses or strophes); and responsorially (the cantor or choir sings or recites the verses while the congregation sings or recites a given response after each verse). Of these three the antiphonal mode is the most widely followed. Over the centuries, the use of complete Psalms in the liturgy declined. After the Second Vatican Council (which also permitted the use of vernacular languages in the liturgy), longer psalm texts were reintroduced into the Mass, during the readings. The revision of the Roman Missal after the Second Vatican Councilreintroduced the singing or recitation of a more substantial section of a Psalm, in some cases an entire Psalm, after the first Reading from Scripture. This Psalm, called the Responsorial Psalm, is usually sung or recited responsorially, although the General Instruction of the Roman Missal, 61 permits direct recitation. Protestant usage[edit] Psalm 1 in a form of the Sternhold and Hopkins version widespread in Anglican usage before the English Civil War (1628 printing). It was from this version that the armies sang before going into battle. Following the Protestant Reformation, versified translations of many of the Psalms were set as hymns. These were particularly popular in the Calvinist tradition, where in the past they were typically sung to the exclusion of hymns. Calvinhimself made some French translations of the Psalms for church usage, but the completed Psalter eventually used in church services consisted exclusively of translations by Clément Marot and Théodore de Bèze, on melodies by a number of composers, including Louis Bourgeois and a certain Maistre Pierre. Martin Luther's A Mighty Fortress Is Our God is based on Psalm 46. Among famous hymn settings of the Psalter were the Scottish Psalter and the paraphrases by Isaac Watts. The first book printed in North America was a collection of Psalm settings, the Bay Psalm Book (1640). By the 20th century, they were mostly replaced by hymns in church services. However, the Psalms are popular for private devotion among many Protestants and still used in many churches for traditional worship.[47] There exists in some circles a custom of reading one Psalm and one chapter of Proverbs a day, corresponding to the day of the month. Metrical Psalms are still very popular among many Reformed Churches. Anglican usage[edit] Anglican chant is a method of singing prose versions of the Psalms. In the early 17th century, when the King James Bible was introduced, the metrical arrangements by Thomas Sternhold and John Hopkins were also popular and were provided with printed tunes. This version and the New Version of the Psalms of David by Tate and Brady produced in the late seventeenth century (see article on Metrical Psalter) remained the normal congregational way of singing psalms in the Church of England until well into the nineteenth century. In Great Britain, the Coverdale psalter still lies at the heart of daily worship in Cathedrals and many parish churches. The new Common Worship service book has a companion psalter in modern English. The version of the Psalter in the American Book of Common Prayer prior to the 1979 edition is a sixteenth-centuryCoverdale Psalter. The Psalter in the American Book of Common Prayer of 1979 is a new translation, with some attempt to keep the rhythms of the Coverdale Psalter. Psalms in the Rastafari movement[edit] The Psalms are one of the most popular parts of the Bible among followers of the Rastafari movement.[48] Rasta singerPrince Far I released an atmospheric spoken version of the psalms, Psalms for I, set to a roots reggae backdrop from The Aggrovators. The Book of Psalms (Hebrew: תְּהִלִּים‎ or תהילים, Tehillim, "praises"), commonly referred to simply as Psalms or "the Psalms", is the first book of the Ketuvim ("Writings"), the third section of the Hebrew Bible, and a book of the ChristianOld Testament.[1] The title is derived from the Greek translation, ψαλμοί psalmoi, meaning "instrumental music" and, by extension, "the words accompanying the music."[2] The book is an anthology of individual psalms, with 150 in the Jewish and Western Christian tradition and more in the Eastern Christian churches.[3][4] Many of the psalms are linked to the name of King David, although his authorship is not accepted by some modern Bible scholars.[4] Contents  [hide]  1 Structure 1.1 Benedictions 1.2 Superscriptions and attributions 1.3 Numbering 1.4 Additional psalms 2 Summary 3 Composition 3.1 Origins 3.2 King David and the Psalms 3.3 Poetic characteristics 3.4 Editorial Agenda 4 The ancient music of the Psalms 5 Themes 6 Later interpretation and influence 6.1 Overview 6.2 Use of the Psalms in Jewish ritual 6.3 The Psalms in Christian worship 6.4 Eastern Orthodox Christianity 6.5 Oriental Christianity 6.6 Roman Catholic usage 6.7 Protestant usage 6.8 Anglican usage 6.9 Psalms in the Rastafari movement 6.10 Psalms in Islam 7 Psalms set to music 7.1 Multiple psalms as a single composition 7.2 Individual psalm settings 7.3 Bach 7.4 Psalm verses 7.5 Contemporary popular music 8 See also 9 References 10 Bibliography 11 External links 11.1 Translations 11.2 Commentary and others Structure[edit] For the Orthodox Christian division into twenty kathismata, see below. An 1880 Baxter process illustration of Psalm 23, from the Religious Tract Society's magazine The Sunday at Home. Benedictions[edit] The Book of Psalms is divided into five sections, each closing with a doxology (i.e., a benediction) – these divisions were probably introduced by the final editors to imitate the five-fold division of the Torah: Book 1 (Psalms 1–41) Book 2 (Psalms 42–72) Book 3 (Psalms 73–89) Book 4 (Psalms 90–106) Book 5 (Psalms 107–150)[5] Superscriptions and attributions[edit] Many psalms (116 of the 150) have individual superscriptions (titles), ranging from lengthy comments to a single word. Over a third appear to be musical directions, addressed to the "leader" or "choirmaster," including such statements as "with stringed instruments" and "according to lilies." Others appear to be references to types of musical composition, such as "A psalm" and "Song," or directions regarding the occasion for using the psalm ("On the dedication of the temple," "For the memorial offering," etc.). Many superscriptions carry the names of individuals, the most common (73 psalms) being of David, and thirteen of these relate explicitly to incidents in the king's life.[6] Others named include Moses (1), Asaph (12), the Sons of Korah (11) and Solomon (2). A natural way of understanding these attributions is as a claim to authorship,[7]but it could also mean "to David" or "for David".[8] Numbering[edit] Hebrew numbering (Masoretic) Greek numbering (Septuagint or Vulgate) 1–8 1–8 9–10 9 11–113 10–112 114–115 113 116 114–115 117–146 116–145 147 146–147 148–150 148–150 Psalms are usually identified by a sequence number, often preceded by the abbreviation "Ps." Numbering of the Psalms differs—mostly by one digit, see table—between the Hebrew (Masoretic) and Greek (Septuagint) manuscripts. Protestant translations (Lutheran, Anglican, Calvinist) use the Hebrew numbering, but other Christian traditions vary: Catholic official liturgical texts follow the Greek numbering Catholic modern translations often use the Hebrew numbering (noting the Greek number) Eastern Orthodox translations use the Greek numbering (noting the Hebrew number) For the remainder of this article, the Hebrew numbering is used, unless otherwise noted. The variance between Massorah and Septuagint texts in this numeration is likely enough due to a gradual neglect of the original poetic form of the Psalms; such neglect was occasioned by liturgical uses and carelessness of copyists. It is admitted by all that Pss. 9 and 10 were originally a single acrostic poem; they have been wrongly separated by Massorah, rightly united by the Septuagint and Vulgate. On the other hand, Ps. 144 is made up of two songs — verses 1–11 and 12–15.[9] Pss. 42 and 43 are shown by identity of subject (yearning for the house of Jahweh), of metrical structure and of refrain (cf. Heb. Ps. 42:6, 12; 43:5), to be three strophes of one and the same poem. The Hebrew text is correct in counting as one Ps. 146 and Ps. 147. Later liturgical usage would seem to have split up these and not a few other psalms. Zenner combines into what he deems were the original choral odes: Pss. 1, 2, 3, 4; 6 + 13; 9 + 10; 19, 20, 21; 56 + 57; 69 + 70; 114 + 115; 148, 149, 150.[10] A choral ode would seem to have been the original form of Pss. 14 + 70. The two strophes and the epode are Ps. 14; the two antistrophes are Ps. 70.[11] It is noteworthy that, on the breaking up of the original ode, each portion crept twice into the Psalter: Ps. 14 = 53, Ps. 70 = 40:14–18. Other such duplicated psalms are Ps. 108:2–6 = Ps. 57:8–12; Ps. 108:7–14 = Ps. 60:7–14; Ps. 71:1–3 = Ps. 31:2–4. This loss of the original form of some of the psalms is allowed by the Biblical Commission (1 May 1910) to have been due to liturgical uses, neglect of copyists, or other causes. Additional psalms[edit] The Septuagint bible, present in Eastern Orthodox churches, includes a Psalm 151; a Hebrew version of this was found in the Psalms Scroll of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Some versions of the Peshitta (the bible used in Syriac churches in the Middle East) include Psalms 152–155. There are also the Psalms of Solomon, which are a further 18 psalms of Jewish origin, likely originally written in Hebrew, but surviving only in Greek and Syriac translation. These and other indications suggest that the current Western Christian and Jewish collection of 150 psalms were selected from a wider set. Summary[edit] Hermann Gunkel's pioneering form-critical work on the psalms sought to provide a new and meaningful context in which to interpret individual psalms – not by looking at their literary context within the Psalter (which he did not see as significant), but by bringing together psalms of the same genre (Gattung) from throughout the Psalter. Gunkel divided the psalms into five primary types: Hymns, songs of praise for God's work in creation or in history. They typically open with a call to praise, describe the motivation for praise, and conclude with a repetition of the call. Two sub-categories are "enthronement psalms," celebrating the enthronement of Yahweh as king, and Zion psalms, glorifying MountZion, God's dwelling-place in Jerusalem.[12] Gunkel also described a special subset of "eschatological hymns"[13] which includes themes of future restoration (Psalm 126) or of judgment (Psalm 82).[14] Communal laments, in which the nation laments some communal disaster.[15] Both communal and individual laments typically but not always include the following elements: 1) address to God, 2) description of suffering, 3) cursing of the party responsible for suffering, 4) protestation of innocence or admission of guilt, 5) petition for divine assistance, 6) faith in God's receipt of prayer, 7) anticipation of divine response, and 8) a song of thanksgiving.[16][17] In general, the difference between the individual and communal subtypes can be distinguished by the use of the singular "I" or the plural "we". However, the "I" could also be characterizing an individual's personal experience that was reflective of the entire community.[18] Royal Psalms, dealing with such matters as the king's coronation, marriage and battles.[15] None of them mentions any specific king by name, and their origin and use remain obscure;[19] several psalms, especially ps.93–99, concern the kingship of God, and might relate to an annual ceremony in which Yahweh would be ritually reinstated as king. [20] Individual laments lamenting the fate of the particular individual who utters them. They are by far the most common type of psalm. They typically open with an invocation of Yahweh, followed by the lament itself and pleas for help, and often ending with an expression of confidence. A subset is the psalm of confidence, in which the psalmist expresses confidence that God will deliver him from evils and enemies.[15] Individual thanksgiving psalms, the obverse of individual laments, in which the psalmist thanks God for deliverance from personal distress.[15] In addition to these five major genres, Gunkel also recognised a number of minor psalm-types, including: communal thanksgiving psalms, in which the whole nation thanks God for deliverance; wisdom psalms, reflecting the Old Testament wisdom literature; pilgrimage psalms, sung by pilgrims on their way to Jerusalem; entrance and prophetic liturgies; and a group of mixed psalms which could not be assigned to any category.[21] Composition[edit] Scroll of the Psalms Origins[edit] The composition of the psalms spans at least five centuries, from Psalm 29, probably adapted from an entire Canaanite hymn to Baal which was transposed into a hymn to Yahweh,[22] to others which are clearly from the post-Exilic period. The majority originated in the southern kingdom of Judah and were associated with the Temple in Jerusalem, where they probably functioned as libretto during the Temple worship. Exactly how they did this is unclear, although there are indications in some of them: "Bind the festal procession with branches, up to the horns of the altar," suggests a connection with sacrifices, and "Let my prayer be counted as incense" suggests a connection with the offering of incense.[3] King David and the Psalms[edit] Seventy-three of the 150 psalms in the Bible are attributed to King David. One of the Dead Sea Scrolls (11QPsa) attributes 3600 tehilim (songs of praise) plus other compositions to him.[23] Nevertheless, there is no hard evidence for Davidic authorship of any of them.[2] "Davidic authorship is not accepted as historical fact by modern scholars," note Adele Berlinand Marc Zvi Brettler in the Jewish Study Bible, but is seen rather as the way in which the ancients "confirm[ed] the divine inspiration and authority" of the writings by linking them to well-known biblical figures.[4] Nine Psalms[citation needed] are attributed to David elsewhere in the Bible: 1 Chronicles 16:7-36 contains parts of Psalms 96, 105 and 106, and this passage is stated to be by David. Acts 4:25 states that Psalm 2 is by David. Acts 2:25-28 states that Psalm 16 is by David. Romans 4:6-8 contains parts of Psalms 32 and this passage is stated to be by David. Romans 11:9 contains part of Psalm 69, the apostle Paul stated that it is by David Hebrews 4:7 states that Psalm 95 is by David. Matthew 24:43-44, Mark 12:36 and Luke 20:42 Jesus attributes part of Psalm 110 to David. Acts 2:34-35 also states that Psalm 110 is by David. Poetic characteristics[edit] The biblical poetry of Psalms uses parallelism as its primary poetic device. Parallelism is a kind of rhyme, in which an idea is developed by the use of repetition, synonyms, or opposites.[24] Synonymous parallelism involves two lines expressing essentially the same idea. An example of synonymous parallelism: The LORD is my light and my salvation; whom shall I fear? The LORD is the stronghold of my life; of whom shall I be afraid? (Psalm 27:1) Two lines expressing opposites is known as antithetic parallelism. An example of antithetic parallelism: The LORD watches over the way of the righteous, but the way of the wicked will perish. (Psalm 1:6) Editorial Agenda[edit] Many scholars believe the individual Psalms were redacted into a single collection in second-temple times. It had long been recognized that the collection bore the imprint of an underlying message or 'meta-narrative', but that this message remained concealed, as Augustine said, 'The sequence of the Psalms seems to me to contain the secret of a mighty mystery, but its meaning has not been revealed to me.' (Enarr. on Ps. 150.1) Others pointed out the presence of concatenation, that is, adjacent Psalms sharing similar words and themes. In time, this approach developed into recognizing overarching themes shared by whole groups of psalms.[25] In 1985, Gerald H. Wilson's The Editing of the Hebrew Psalter proposed, by parallel with other ancient eastern hymn collections, that psalms at the beginning and end (or "seams") of the five books of Psalms have thematic significance, corresponding in particular with the placement of the royal psalms. He pointed out that there was a progression of ideas, from adversity, through the crux of the collection in the apparent failure of the covenant in Psalm 89, leading to a concert of praise at the end. He concluded that the collection was redacted to be a retrospective of the failure of the Davidic covenant, exhorting Israel to trust in God alone in a non-messianic future.[26] Walter Brueggemann suggested that the underlying editorial purpose was oriented rather towards wisdom or sapiential concerns, addressing the issues of how to live the life of faith. Psalm 1 calls the reader to a life of obedience; Psalm 73 (Brueggemann's crux psalm) faces the crisis when divine faithfulness is in doubt; Psalm 150 represents faith's triumph, when God is praised not for his rewards, but for his being.[27] In 1997, David. C. Mitchell's The Message of the Psalter took a quite different line. Building on the work of Wilson and others,[28] Mitchell proposed that the Psalter embodies an eschatological timetable like that of Zechariah 9–14.[29] This programme includes the gathering of exiled Israel by a bridegroom-king; his establishment of a kingdom; his violent death; Israel scattered in the wilderness, regathered and again imperilled, then rescued by a king from the heavens, who establishes his kingdom from Zion, brings peace and prosperity to the earth and receives the homage of the nations. Such a timetable is confirmed by parallels from the Baal Cycle to Roman-periodmidrashim. These three views—Wilson's non-messianic retrospective of the Davidic covenant, Brueggemann's sapiential instruction, and Mitchell's eschatologico-messianic programme—all have their followers, although the sapiential agenda has been somewhat eclipsed by the other two. Shortly before his untimely death in 2005, Wilson modified his position to allow for the existence of messianic prophecy within the Psalms' redactional agenda.[30] Mitchell's position remains largely unchanged, although he now sees the issue as identifying when the historical beginning of the Psalms turns to eschatology.[31] The ancient music of the Psalms[edit] The Psalms were written not merely as poems, but as songs for singing. More than a third of the psalms are addressed to the Director of Music. Some psalms exhort the worshipper to sing (e.g. Pss. 33:1-3; 92:1-3; 96:1-3; 98:1; 101:1; 150). Some headings denote the musical instruments on which the psalm should be played (Pss. 4, 5, 6, 8, 67). Some refer to singing at the sheminit or octave (Pss. 6, 12). And others preserve the name for ancient eastern modes, like mut la-ben(Death of the son; Ps. 9), ayelet ha-shachar (hind of the dawn; Ps. 22); shoshanim (Lilies; Ps. 45); or alamoth (Maidens?; Ps. 46). Despite the frequently-heard view that their ancient music is lost, the means to reconstruct it still exist. Fragments of temple psalmody are preserved in ancient church and synagogue chant, particularly in the tonus peregrinus melody to Psalm 114.[32] Cantillation signs, to record the melody sung, were in use since ancient times; evidence of them can be found in the manuscripts of the oldest extant copies of Psalms in the Dead Sea Scrolls and are even more extensive in theMasoretic text, which dates to the Early Middle Ages and whose Tiberian scribes claimed to be basing their work on temple-period signs. (See Moshe ben Asher's 'Song of the Vine' colophon to the Codex Cairensis). However, any knowledge of how to read these signs was lost in ancient times, and modern Bible translationsdo not include any musical notation.[33] Several attempts have been made to decode the Masoretic cantillation, but the most successful is that of Suzanne Haïk-Vantoura (1928–2000) in the last quarter of the 20th century.[34] Although some have dismissed Haïk-Vantoura's system, Mitchell has repeatedly defended it, showing that, when applied to the Masoretic cantillation of Psalm 114, it produces a melody recognizable as the tonus peregrinus of church and synagogue.[35] Mitchell includes musical transcriptions of the temple psalmody of Psalms 120–134 in his commentary on the Songs of Ascents. Themes[edit] Most individual psalms involve the praise of God – for his power and beneficence, for his creation of the world, and for his past acts of deliverance for Israel. The psalms envision a world in which everyone and everything will praise God, and God in turn will hear their prayers and respond. Worst of all is when God "hides his face" and refuses to respond, because this puts in question the efficacy of prayer which is the underlying assumption of the Book of Psalms.[36] Some psalms are called "maskil" (maschil) because in addition they impart wisdom. Most notable of these is Psalm 142 which is sometimes called the "Maskil of David", others include Psalm 32 and Psalm 78.[37] The term derives from maskil meaning "enlightened" or "wise". Later interpretation and influence[edit] David Playing the Harp by Jan de Bray, 1670. Hebrew text of Psalm 1:1-2 A Jewish man reads Psalms at theWestern Wall Overview[edit] Individual psalms were originally hymns, to be used on various occasions and at various sacred sites; later, some were anthologised, and might have been understood within the various anthologies (e.g., ps.123 as one of the Psalms of Ascent); finally, individual psalms might be understood within the Psalter as a whole, either narrating the life of David or providing instruction like the Torah. In later Jewish and Christian tradition, the psalms have come to be used as prayers, either individual or communal, as traditional expressions of religious feeling.[38] Use of the Psalms in Jewish ritual[edit] Some of the titles given to the Psalms in their ascriptions suggest their use in worship: Some bear the Hebrew designation shir (שיר; Greek ode, a song). Thirteen have this title. It means the flow of speech, as it were, in a straight line or in a regular strain. This title includes secular as well as sacred song. Fifty-eight Psalms bear the designation mizmor (מזמור; Greek ψαλμός psalmos, a psalm), a lyric ode, or a song set to music; a sacred song accompanied with a musical instrument. Psalm 145, and many others, have the designation tehillah (תהילה; Greek hymnos, a hymn), meaning a song of praise; a song the prominent thought of which is the praise of God. Tehillah is also the singular of the name of the book in Hebrew, Tehillim. Six Psalms (16, 56–60) have the title michtam (מכתם; "gold").[39] Rashi suggests that "michtam" refers to an item that a person carries with him at all times, hence, these Psalms contain concepts or ideas that are pertinent at every stage and setting throughout life, deemed vital as part of day-to-day spiritual awareness.[40] Psalm 7 (along with Habakkuk ch. 3)[41] bears the title shigayon (שיגיון). There are three interpretations:[42] (a) According to Rashi and others, this term stems from the root shegaga, meaning "mistake" – David committed some sin and is singing in the form of a prayer to redeem himself from it; (b) shigayon was a type of musical instrument; (c) Ibn Ezra considers the word to mean 'longing,' as in the verse in Proverbs 5:19[43] "tishge tamid." Psalms are used throughout traditional Jewish worship. Many complete Psalms and verses from Psalms appear in themorning services ("Shacharit"). The pesukei dezimra component incorporates Psalms 30, 100 and 145 – 150. Psalm 145 (commonly referred to as "Ashrei", which is really the first word of 2 verses appended to the beginning of the Psalm), is read three times every day: once in shacharit as part of pesukei dezimrah, as mentioned, once, along with Psalm 20, as part of the morning's concluding prayers, and once at the start of the Afternoon service. On Festival days and Sabbaths, instead of concluding the morning service, it precedes the Mussaf service. Psalms 95–99, 29, 92, and 93, along with some later readings, comprise the introduction ("Kabbalat Shabbat") to the Friday night service. Traditionally, a different "Psalm for the Day" – Shir shel yom – is read after the morning service each day of the week (starting Sunday, Psalms: 24, 48, 82, 94, 81, 93, 92). This is described in the Mishnah (the initial codification of the Jewish oral tradition) in the tractate "Tamid". According to the Talmud, these daily Psalms were originally recited on that day of the week by the Levites in the Temple in Jerusalem. From Rosh Chodesh Elul until Hoshanah Rabbah, Psalm 27 is recited twice daily following the morning and evening services. There is a Minhag (custom) to say Psalm 30 each morning of Chanukkah after Shacharit: some say this "instead" of the regular "Psalm for the Day", others say this additionally. When a Jew dies, a watch is kept over the body and Tehillim (Psalms) are recited constantly by sun or candlelight, until the burial service. Historically, this watch would be carried out by the immediate family – usually in shifts – but in contemporary practice, this service is provided by an employee of the funeral home orChevra kadisha. Many Jews complete the Book of Psalms on a weekly or monthly basis. Each week, some also say a Psalm connected to that week's events or the Torah portion read during that week. In addition, many Jews (notably Lubavitch, and other Chasidim) read the entire Book of Psalms prior to the morning service, on the Sabbath preceding the calculated appearance of the new moon. The reading of psalms is viewed in Jewish tradition as a vehicle for gaining God's favor. They are thus often specially recited in times of trouble, such as poverty, disease, or physical danger; in many synagogues, Psalms are recited after services for the security of the State of Israel. Note that Sefer ha-Chinuch[44] states that this practice is designed not to achieve favor, as such, but rather to inculcate belief in Divine Providence into one's consciousness – as consistent with Maimonides'general view on Providence. (Relatedly, the Hebrew verb for prayer – hitpalal התפלל – is in fact the reflexive form of palal פלל, to judge. Thus, "to pray" conveys the notion of "judging oneself": ultimately, the purpose of prayer – tefilah תפלה – is to transform ourselves; for the relationship between prayer and psalms – "tehillahand tefillah" – see S. R. Hirsch, Horeb §620. See also under Jewish services.) The Psalms in Christian worship[edit] Part of a series on Christianity JesusChrist [show] BibleFoundations [show] Theology[show] HistoryTradition [show] Related topics[show] DenominationsGroups [show]  Christianity portal vte St. Florian's psalter, 14th or 15th century, Old Polish Translation Children singing and playing music, illustration of Psalm 150 (Laudate Dominum). New Testament references show that the earliest Christians used the Psalms in worship, and the Psalms have remained an important part of worship in most Christian Churches. The Eastern Orthodox, Catholic, Presbyterian,Lutheran and Anglican Churches have always made systematic use of the Psalms, with a cycle for the recitation of all or most of them over the course of one or more weeks. In the early centuries of the Church, it was expected that any candidate for bishop would be able to recite the entire Psalter from memory, something they often learned automatically[45] during their time as monks. Paul the Apostle quotes psalms (specifically Psalms 14 and 53, which are nearly identical) as the basis for his theory of original sin, and includes the scripture in the Epistle to the Romans, chapter 3. Several conservative Protestant denominations sing only the Psalms (some churches also sing the small number of hymns found elsewhere in the Bible) in worship, and do not accept the use of any non-Biblical hymns; examples are the Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America, the Presbyterian Reformed Church (North America) and theFree Church of Scotland (Continuing). Some Psalms are among the best-known and best-loved passages of Scripture, with a popularity extending well beyond regular church-goers[citation needed][peacock term]. Psalm 22 is of particular importance during the season of Lent as a Psalm of continued faith during severe testing. Psalm 23, The LORD is My Shepherd, offers an immediately appealing message of comfort and is widely chosen for church funeral services, either as a reading or in one of several popular hymn settings; Psalm 51, Have mercy on me O God, called the Miserere from the first word in its Latin version, is by far the most sung Psalm of Orthodoxy[citation needed], in both Divine Liturgy and Hours, in the sacrament of repentance or confession, and in other settings; Psalm 82 is found in the Book of Common Prayer as a funeral recitation. Psalm 103, Bless the Lord, O my soul, is one of the best-known[citation needed] prayers of praise. The psalm was adapted for the musical Godspell; Psalm 137, By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down and wept, is a moody meditation upon living in slavery, and has been used in at least one spiritual[citation needed], as well as one well-known reggae song;[46] the Orthodox church often uses this hymn during Lent. This psalm was adapted for the song On the Willows in the musical Godspell. New translations and settings of the Psalms continue to be produced. An individually printed volume of Psalms for use in Christian religious rituals is called a Psalter. Eastern Orthodox Christianity[edit] See also: Kathisma Orthodox Christians and Greek-Catholics (Eastern Catholics who follow the Byzantine rite), have long made the Psalms an integral part of their corporate and private prayers. The official version of the Psalter used by the Orthodox Church is theSeptuagint. To facilitate its reading, the 150 Psalms are divided into 20 kathismata (Greek: καθίσματα; Slavonic: каѳисмы,kafismy; lit. "sittings") and each kathisma (Greek: κάθισμα; Slavonic: каѳисма, kafisma) is further subdivided into threestases (Greek: στάσεις, staseis lit. "standings", sing. στάσις, stasis), so-called because the faithful stand at the end of eachstasis for the Glory to the Father .... At Vespers and Matins, different kathismata are read at different times of the liturgical year and on different days of the week, according to the Church's calendar, so that all 150 psalms (20 kathismata) are read in the course of a week. DuringGreat Lent, the number of kathismata is increased so that the entire Psalter is read twice a week. In the twentieth century, some lay Christians have adopted a continuous reading of the Psalms on weekdays, praying the whole book in four weeks. Aside from kathisma readings, Psalms occupy a prominent place in every other Orthodox service including the services of the Hours and the Divine Liturgy. In particular, the penitential Psalm 50 is very widely used. Fragments of Psalms and individual verses are used as Prokimena (introductions to Scriptural readings) and Stichera. The bulk of Vespers would still be composed of Psalms even if the kathisma were to be disregarded; Psalm 119, "The Psalm of the Law", is the centerpiece of Matins on Saturdays, some Sundays, and the Funeral service. The entire book of Psalms is traditionally read out loud or chanted at the side of the deceased during the time leading up to the funeral, mirroring Jewish tradition. Oriental Christianity[edit] Several branches of Oriental Orthodox and those Eastern Catholics who follow one of the Oriental Rites will chant the entire Psalter during the course of a day during the Daily Office. This practice continues to be a requirement of monastics in the Oriental churches. Roman Catholic usage[edit] The Psalms have always been an important part of Catholic liturgy. The Liturgy of the Hours is centered on chanting or recitation of the Psalms, using fixed melodic formulas known as psalm tones. Early Catholics employed the Psalms widely in their individual prayers also; however, as knowledge of Latin (the language of theRoman Rite) became uncommon, this practice ceased among the unlearned. However, until the end of the Middle Ages, it was not unknown for the laity to join in the singing of the Little Office of Our Lady, which was a shortened version of the Liturgy of the Hours providing a fixed daily cycle of twenty-five psalms to be recited, and nine other psalms divided across Matins. The work of Bishop Richard Challoner in providing devotional materials in English meant that many of the psalms were familiar to English-speaking Catholics from the eighteenth century onwards. Challoner translated the entirety of the Lady Office into English, as well as Sunday Vespers and daily Compline. He also provided other individual Psalms such as 129/130 for prayer in his devotional books. Challoner is also noted for revising the Douay-Rheims Bible, and the translations he used in his devotional books are taken from this work. Until the Second Vatican Council the Psalms were either recited on a one-week or, less commonly (as in the case of Ambrosian rite), two-week cycle. Different one-week schemata were employed: most secular clergy followed the Roman distribution, while Monastic Houses almost universally followed that of St Benedict, with only a few congregations (such as the Benedictines of St Maur) following individualistic arrangements. The Breviary introduced in 1974 distributed the psalms over a four-week cycle. Monastic usage varies widely. Some use the four-week cycle of the secular clergy, many retain a one-week cycle, either following St Benedict's scheme or another of their own devising, while others opt for some other arrangement. Official approval was also given to other arrangements (see "Short" Breviaries in the 20th and early 21st century America for an in-progress study) by which the complete Psalter is recited in a one-week or two-week cycle. These arrangements are used principally by Catholic contemplative religious orders, such as that of the Trappists (see for example the Divine Office schedule at New Melleray Abbey). The General Instruction of the Liturgy of the Hours, 122 sanctions three modes of singing/recitation for the Psalms: directly (all sing or recite the entire psalm); antiphonally (two choirs or sections of the congregation sing or recite alternate verses or strophes); and responsorially (the cantor or choir sings or recites the verses while the congregation sings or recites a given response after each verse). Of these three the antiphonal mode is the most widely followed. Over the centuries, the use of complete Psalms in the liturgy declined. After the Second Vatican Council (which also permitted the use of vernacular languages in the liturgy), longer psalm texts were reintroduced into the Mass, during the readings. The revision of the Roman Missal after the Second Vatican Councilreintroduced the singing or recitation of a more substantial section of a Psalm, in some cases an entire Psalm, after the first Reading from Scripture. This Psalm, called the Responsorial Psalm, is usually sung or recited responsorially, although the General Instruction of the Roman Missal, 61 permits direct recitation. Protestant usage[edit] Psalm 1 in a form of the Sternhold and Hopkins version widespread in Anglican usage before the English Civil War (1628 printing). It was from this version that the armies sang before going into battle. Following the Protestant Reformation, versified translations of many of the Psalms were set as hymns. These were particularly popular in the Calvinist tradition, where in the past they were typically sung to the exclusion of hymns. Calvinhimself made some French translations of the Psalms for church usage, but the completed Psalter eventually used in church services consisted exclusively of translations by Clément Marot and Théodore de Bèze, on melodies by a number of composers, including Louis Bourgeois and a certain Maistre Pierre. Martin Luther's A Mighty Fortress Is Our God is based on Psalm 46. Among famous hymn settings of the Psalter were the Scottish Psalter and the paraphrases by Isaac Watts. The first book printed in North America was a collection of Psalm settings, the Bay Psalm Book (1640). By the 20th century, they were mostly replaced by hymns in church services. However, the Psalms are popular for private devotion among many Protestants and still used in many churches for traditional worship.[47] There exists in some circles a custom of reading one Psalm and one chapter of Proverbs a day, corresponding to the day of the month. Metrical Psalms are still very popular among many Reformed Churches. Anglican usage[edit] Anglican chant is a method of singing prose versions of the Psalms. In the early 17th century, when the King James Bible was introduced, the metrical arrangements by Thomas Sternhold and John Hopkins were also popular and were provided with printed tunes. This version and the New Version of the Psalms of David by Tate and Brady produced in the late seventeenth century (see article on Metrical Psalter) remained the normal congregational way of singing psalms in the Church of England until well into the nineteenth century. In Great Britain, the Coverdale psalter still lies at the heart of daily worship in Cathedrals and many parish churches. The new Common Worship service book has a companion psalter in modern English. The version of the Psalter in the American Book of Common Prayer prior to the 1979 edition is a sixteenth-centuryCoverdale Psalter. The Psalter in the American Book of Common Prayer of 1979 is a new translation, with some attempt to keep the rhythms of the Coverdale Psalter. Psalms in the Rastafari movement[edit] The Psalms are one of the most popular parts of the Bible among followers of the Rastafari movement.[48] Rasta singerPrince Far I released an atmospheric spoken version of the psalms, Psalms for I, set to a roots reggae backdrop from The Aggrovators.The Book of Psalms (Hebrew: תְּהִלִּים‎ or תהילים, Tehillim, "praises"), commonly referred to simply as Psalms or "the Psalms", is the first book of the Ketuvim ("Writings"), the third section of the Hebrew Bible, and a book of the ChristianOld Testament.[1] The title is derived from the Greek translation, ψαλμοί psalmoi, meaning "instrumental music" and, by extension, "the words accompanying the music."[2] The book is an anthology of individual psalms, with 150 in the Jewish and Western Christian tradition and more in the Eastern Christian churches.[3][4] Many of the psalms are linked to the name of King David, although his authorship is not accepted by some modern Bible scholars.[4] Contents  [hide]  1 Structure 1.1 Benedictions 1.2 Superscriptions and attributions 1.3 Numbering 1.4 Additional psalms 2 Summary 3 Composition 3.1 Origins 3.2 King David and the Psalms 3.3 Poetic characteristics 3.4 Editorial Agenda 4 The ancient music of the Psalms 5 Themes 6 Later interpretation and influence 6.1 Overview 6.2 Use of the Psalms in Jewish ritual 6.3 The Psalms in Christian worship 6.4 Eastern Orthodox Christianity 6.5 Oriental Christianity 6.6 Roman Catholic usage 6.7 Protestant usage 6.8 Anglican usage 6.9 Psalms in the Rastafari movement 6.10 Psalms in Islam 7 Psalms set to music 7.1 Multiple psalms as a single composition 7.2 Individual psalm settings 7.3 Bach 7.4 Psalm verses 7.5 Contemporary popular music 8 See also 9 References 10 Bibliography 11 External links 11.1 Translations 11.2 Commentary and others Structure[edit] For the Orthodox Christian division into twenty kathismata, see below. An 1880 Baxter process illustration of Psalm 23, from the Religious Tract Society's magazine The Sunday at Home. Benedictions[edit] The Book of Psalms is divided into five sections, each closing with a doxology (i.e., a benediction) – these divisions were probably introduced by the final editors to imitate the five-fold division of the Torah: Book 1 (Psalms 1–41) Book 2 (Psalms 42–72) Book 3 (Psalms 73–89) Book 4 (Psalms 90–106) Book 5 (Psalms 107–150)[5] Superscriptions and attributions[edit] Many psalms (116 of the 150) have individual superscriptions (titles), ranging from lengthy comments to a single word. Over a third appear to be musical directions, addressed to the "leader" or "choirmaster," including such statements as "with stringed instruments" and "according to lilies." Others appear to be references to types of musical composition, such as "A psalm" and "Song," or directions regarding the occasion for using the psalm ("On the dedication of the temple," "For the memorial offering," etc.). Many superscriptions carry the names of individuals, the most common (73 psalms) being of David, and thirteen of these relate explicitly to incidents in the king's life.[6] Others named include Moses (1), Asaph (12), the Sons of Korah (11) and Solomon (2). A natural way of understanding these attributions is as a claim to authorship,[7]but it could also mean "to David" or "for David".[8] Numbering[edit] Hebrew numbering (Masoretic) Greek numbering (Septuagint or Vulgate) 1–8 1–8 9–10 9 11–113 10–112 114–115 113 116 114–115 117–146 116–145 147 146–147 148–150 148–150 Psalms are usually identified by a sequence number, often preceded by the abbreviation "Ps." Numbering of the Psalms differs—mostly by one digit, see table—between the Hebrew (Masoretic) and Greek (Septuagint) manuscripts. Protestant translations (Lutheran, Anglican, Calvinist) use the Hebrew numbering, but other Christian traditions vary: Catholic official liturgical texts follow the Greek numbering Catholic modern translations often use the Hebrew numbering (noting the Greek number) Eastern Orthodox translations use the Greek numbering (noting the Hebrew number) For the remainder of this article, the Hebrew numbering is used, unless otherwise noted. The variance between Massorah and Septuagint texts in this numeration is likely enough due to a gradual neglect of the original poetic form of the Psalms; such neglect was occasioned by liturgical uses and carelessness of copyists. It is admitted by all that Pss. 9 and 10 were originally a single acrostic poem; they have been wrongly separated by Massorah, rightly united by the Septuagint and Vulgate. On the other hand, Ps. 144 is made up of two songs — verses 1–11 and 12–15.[9] Pss. 42 and 43 are shown by identity of subject (yearning for the house of Jahweh), of metrical structure and of refrain (cf. Heb. Ps. 42:6, 12; 43:5), to be three strophes of one and the same poem. The Hebrew text is correct in counting as one Ps. 146 and Ps. 147. Later liturgical usage would seem to have split up these and not a few other psalms. Zenner combines into what he deems were the original choral odes: Pss. 1, 2, 3, 4; 6 + 13; 9 + 10; 19, 20, 21; 56 + 57; 69 + 70; 114 + 115; 148, 149, 150.[10] A choral ode would seem to have been the original form of Pss. 14 + 70. The two strophes and the epode are Ps. 14; the two antistrophes are Ps. 70.[11] It is noteworthy that, on the breaking up of the original ode, each portion crept twice into the Psalter: Ps. 14 = 53, Ps. 70 = 40:14–18. Other such duplicated psalms are Ps. 108:2–6 = Ps. 57:8–12; Ps. 108:7–14 = Ps. 60:7–14; Ps. 71:1–3 = Ps. 31:2–4. This loss of the original form of some of the psalms is allowed by the Biblical Commission (1 May 1910) to have been due to liturgical uses, neglect of copyists, or other causes. Additional psalms[edit] The Septuagint bible, present in Eastern Orthodox churches, includes a Psalm 151; a Hebrew version of this was found in the Psalms Scroll of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Some versions of the Peshitta (the bible used in Syriac churches in the Middle East) include Psalms 152–155. There are also the Psalms of Solomon, which are a further 18 psalms of Jewish origin, likely originally written in Hebrew, but surviving only in Greek and Syriac translation. These and other indications suggest that the current Western Christian and Jewish collection of 150 psalms were selected from a wider set. Summary[edit] Hermann Gunkel's pioneering form-critical work on the psalms sought to provide a new and meaningful context in which to interpret individual psalms – not by looking at their literary context within the Psalter (which he did not see as significant), but by bringing together psalms of the same genre (Gattung) from throughout the Psalter. Gunkel divided the psalms into five primary types: Hymns, songs of praise for God's work in creation or in history. They typically open with a call to praise, describe the motivation for praise, and conclude with a repetition of the call. Two sub-categories are "enthronement psalms," celebrating the enthronement of Yahweh as king, and Zion psalms, glorifying MountZion, God's dwelling-place in Jerusalem.[12] Gunkel also described a special subset of "eschatological hymns"[13] which includes themes of future restoration (Psalm 126) or of judgment (Psalm 82).[14] Communal laments, in which the nation laments some communal disaster.[15] Both communal and individual laments typically but not always include the following elements: 1) address to God, 2) description of suffering, 3) cursing of the party responsible for suffering, 4) protestation of innocence or admission of guilt, 5) petition for divine assistance, 6) faith in God's receipt of prayer, 7) anticipation of divine response, and 8) a song of thanksgiving.[16][17] In general, the difference between the individual and communal subtypes can be distinguished by the use of the singular "I" or the plural "we". However, the "I" could also be characterizing an individual's personal experience that was reflective of the entire community.[18] Royal Psalms, dealing with such matters as the king's coronation, marriage and battles.[15] None of them mentions any specific king by name, and their origin and use remain obscure;[19] several psalms, especially ps.93–99, concern the kingship of God, and might relate to an annual ceremony in which Yahweh would be ritually reinstated as king. [20] Individual laments lamenting the fate of the particular individual who utters them. They are by far the most common type of psalm. They typically open with an invocation of Yahweh, followed by the lament itself and pleas for help, and often ending with an expression of confidence. A subset is the psalm of confidence, in which the psalmist expresses confidence that God will deliver him from evils and enemies.[15] Individual thanksgiving psalms, the obverse of individual laments, in which the psalmist thanks God for deliverance from personal distress.[15] In addition to these five major genres, Gunkel also recognised a number of minor psalm-types, including: communal thanksgiving psalms, in which the whole nation thanks God for deliverance; wisdom psalms, reflecting the Old Testament wisdom literature; pilgrimage psalms, sung by pilgrims on their way to Jerusalem; entrance and prophetic liturgies; and a group of mixed psalms which could not be assigned to any category.[21] Composition[edit] Scroll of the Psalms Origins[edit] The composition of the psalms spans at least five centuries, from Psalm 29, probably adapted from an entire Canaanite hymn to Baal which was transposed into a hymn to Yahweh,[22] to others which are clearly from the post-Exilic period. The majority originated in the southern kingdom of Judah and were associated with the Temple in Jerusalem, where they probably functioned as libretto during the Temple worship. Exactly how they did this is unclear, although there are indications in some of them: "Bind the festal procession with branches, up to the horns of the altar," suggests a connection with sacrifices, and "Let my prayer be counted as incense" suggests a connection with the offering of incense.[3] King David and the Psalms[edit] Seventy-three of the 150 psalms in the Bible are attributed to King David. One of the Dead Sea Scrolls (11QPsa) attributes 3600 tehilim (songs of praise) plus other compositions to him.[23] Nevertheless, there is no hard evidence for Davidic authorship of any of them.[2] "Davidic authorship is not accepted as historical fact by modern scholars," note Adele Berlinand Marc Zvi Brettler in the Jewish Study Bible, but is seen rather as the way in which the ancients "confirm[ed] the divine inspiration and authority" of the writings by linking them to well-known biblical figures.[4] Nine Psalms[citation needed] are attributed to David elsewhere in the Bible: 1 Chronicles 16:7-36 contains parts of Psalms 96, 105 and 106, and this passage is stated to be by David. Acts 4:25 states that Psalm 2 is by David. Acts 2:25-28 states that Psalm 16 is by David. Romans 4:6-8 contains parts of Psalms 32 and this passage is stated to be by David. Romans 11:9 contains part of Psalm 69, the apostle Paul stated that it is by David Hebrews 4:7 states that Psalm 95 is by David. Matthew 24:43-44, Mark 12:36 and Luke 20:42 Jesus attributes part of Psalm 110 to David. Acts 2:34-35 also states that Psalm 110 is by David. Poetic characteristics[edit] The biblical poetry of Psalms uses parallelism as its primary poetic device. Parallelism is a kind of rhyme, in which an idea is developed by the use of repetition, synonyms, or opposites.[24] Synonymous parallelism involves two lines expressing essentially the same idea. An example of synonymous parallelism: The LORD is my light and my salvation; whom shall I fear? The LORD is the stronghold of my life; of whom shall I be afraid? (Psalm 27:1) Two lines expressing opposites is known as antithetic parallelism. An example of antithetic parallelism: The LORD watches over the way of the righteous, but the way of the wicked will perish. (Psalm 1:6) Editorial Agenda[edit] Many scholars believe the individual Psalms were redacted into a single collection in second-temple times. It had long been recognized that the collection bore the imprint of an underlying message or 'meta-narrative', but that this message remained concealed, as Augustine said, 'The sequence of the Psalms seems to me to contain the secret of a mighty mystery, but its meaning has not been revealed to me.' (Enarr. on Ps. 150.1) Others pointed out the presence of concatenation, that is, adjacent Psalms sharing similar words and themes. In time, this approach developed into recognizing overarching themes shared by whole groups of psalms.[25] In 1985, Gerald H. Wilson's The Editing of the Hebrew Psalter proposed, by parallel with other ancient eastern hymn collections, that psalms at the beginning and end (or "seams") of the five books of Psalms have thematic significance, corresponding in particular with the placement of the royal psalms. He pointed out that there was a progression of ideas, from adversity, through the crux of the collection in the apparent failure of the covenant in Psalm 89, leading to a concert of praise at the end. He concluded that the collection was redacted to be a retrospective of the failure of the Davidic covenant, exhorting Israel to trust in God alone in a non-messianic future.[26] Walter Brueggemann suggested that the underlying editorial purpose was oriented rather towards wisdom or sapiential concerns, addressing the issues of how to live the life of faith. Psalm 1 calls the reader to a life of obedience; Psalm 73 (Brueggemann's crux psalm) faces the crisis when divine faithfulness is in doubt; Psalm 150 represents faith's triumph, when God is praised not for his rewards, but for his being.[27] In 1997, David. C. Mitchell's The Message of the Psalter took a quite different line. Building on the work of Wilson and others,[28] Mitchell proposed that the Psalter embodies an eschatological timetable like that of Zechariah 9–14.[29] This programme includes the gathering of exiled Israel by a bridegroom-king; his establishment of a kingdom; his violent death; Israel scattered in the wilderness, regathered and again imperilled, then rescued by a king from the heavens, who establishes his kingdom from Zion, brings peace and prosperity to the earth and receives the homage of the nations. Such a timetable is confirmed by parallels from the Baal Cycle to Roman-periodmidrashim. These three views—Wilson's non-messianic retrospective of the Davidic covenant, Brueggemann's sapiential instruction, and Mitchell's eschatologico-messianic programme—all have their followers, although the sapiential agenda has been somewhat eclipsed by the other two. Shortly before his untimely death in 2005, Wilson modified his position to allow for the existence of messianic prophecy within the Psalms' redactional agenda.[30] Mitchell's position remains largely unchanged, although he now sees the issue as identifying when the historical beginning of the Psalms turns to eschatology.[31] The ancient music of the Psalms[edit] The Psalms were written not merely as poems, but as songs for singing. More than a third of the psalms are addressed to the Director of Music. Some psalms exhort the worshipper to sing (e.g. Pss. 33:1-3; 92:1-3; 96:1-3; 98:1; 101:1; 150). Some headings denote the musical instruments on which the psalm should be played (Pss. 4, 5, 6, 8, 67). Some refer to singing at the sheminit or octave (Pss. 6, 12). And others preserve the name for ancient eastern modes, like mut la-ben(Death of the son; Ps. 9), ayelet ha-shachar (hind of the dawn; Ps. 22); shoshanim (Lilies; Ps. 45); or alamoth (Maidens?; Ps. 46). Despite the frequently-heard view that their ancient music is lost, the means to reconstruct it still exist. Fragments of temple psalmody are preserved in ancient church and synagogue chant, particularly in the tonus peregrinus melody to Psalm 114.[32] Cantillation signs, to record the melody sung, were in use since ancient times; evidence of them can be found in the manuscripts of the oldest extant copies of Psalms in the Dead Sea Scrolls and are even more extensive in theMasoretic text, which dates to the Early Middle Ages and whose Tiberian scribes claimed to be basing their work on temple-period signs. (See Moshe ben Asher's 'Song of the Vine' colophon to the Codex Cairensis). However, any knowledge of how to read these signs was lost in ancient times, and modern Bible translationsdo not include any musical notation.[33] Several attempts have been made to decode the Masoretic cantillation, but the most successful is that of Suzanne Haïk-Vantoura (1928–2000) in the last quarter of the 20th century.[34] Although some have dismissed Haïk-Vantoura's system, Mitchell has repeatedly defended it, showing that, when applied to the Masoretic cantillation of Psalm 114, it produces a melody recognizable as the tonus peregrinus of church and synagogue.[35] Mitchell includes musical transcriptions of the temple psalmody of Psalms 120–134 in his commentary on the Songs of Ascents. Themes[edit] Most individual psalms involve the praise of God – for his power and beneficence, for his creation of the world, and for his past acts of deliverance for Israel. The psalms envision a world in which everyone and everything will praise God, and God in turn will hear their prayers and respond. Worst of all is when God "hides his face" and refuses to respond, because this puts in question the efficacy of prayer which is the underlying assumption of the Book of Psalms.[36] Some psalms are called "maskil" (maschil) because in addition they impart wisdom. Most notable of these is Psalm 142 which is sometimes called the "Maskil of David", others include Psalm 32 and Psalm 78.[37] The term derives from maskil meaning "enlightened" or "wise". Later interpretation and influence[edit] David Playing the Harp by Jan de Bray, 1670. Hebrew text of Psalm 1:1-2 A Jewish man reads Psalms at theWestern Wall Overview[edit] Individual psalms were originally hymns, to be used on various occasions and at various sacred sites; later, some were anthologised, and might have been understood within the various anthologies (e.g., ps.123 as one of the Psalms of Ascent); finally, individual psalms might be understood within the Psalter as a whole, either narrating the life of David or providing instruction like the Torah. In later Jewish and Christian tradition, the psalms have come to be used as prayers, either individual or communal, as traditional expressions of religious feeling.[38] Use of the Psalms in Jewish ritual[edit] Some of the titles given to the Psalms in their ascriptions suggest their use in worship: Some bear the Hebrew designation shir (שיר; Greek ode, a song). Thirteen have this title. It means the flow of speech, as it were, in a straight line or in a regular strain. This title includes secular as well as sacred song. Fifty-eight Psalms bear the designation mizmor (מזמור; Greek ψαλμός psalmos, a psalm), a lyric ode, or a song set to music; a sacred song accompanied with a musical instrument. Psalm 145, and many others, have the designation tehillah (תהילה; Greek hymnos, a hymn), meaning a song of praise; a song the prominent thought of which is the praise of God. Tehillah is also the singular of the name of the book in Hebrew, Tehillim. Six Psalms (16, 56–60) have the title michtam (מכתם; "gold").[39] Rashi suggests that "michtam" refers to an item that a person carries with him at all times, hence, these Psalms contain concepts or ideas that are pertinent at every stage and setting throughout life, deemed vital as part of day-to-day spiritual awareness.[40] Psalm 7 (along with Habakkuk ch. 3)[41] bears the title shigayon (שיגיון). There are three interpretations:[42] (a) According to Rashi and others, this term stems from the root shegaga, meaning "mistake" – David committed some sin and is singing in the form of a prayer to redeem himself from it; (b) shigayon was a type of musical instrument; (c) Ibn Ezra considers the word to mean 'longing,' as in the verse in Proverbs 5:19[43] "tishge tamid." Psalms are used throughout traditional Jewish worship. Many complete Psalms and verses from Psalms appear in themorning services ("Shacharit"). The pesukei dezimra component incorporates Psalms 30, 100 and 145 – 150. Psalm 145 (commonly referred to as "Ashrei", which is really the first word of 2 verses appended to the beginning of the Psalm), is read three times every day: once in shacharit as part of pesukei dezimrah, as mentioned, once, along with Psalm 20, as part of the morning's concluding prayers, and once at the start of the Afternoon service. On Festival days and Sabbaths, instead of concluding the morning service, it precedes the Mussaf service. Psalms 95–99, 29, 92, and 93, along with some later readings, comprise the introduction ("Kabbalat Shabbat") to the Friday night service. Traditionally, a different "Psalm for the Day" – Shir shel yom – is read after the morning service each day of the week (starting Sunday, Psalms: 24, 48, 82, 94, 81, 93, 92). This is described in the Mishnah (the initial codification of the Jewish oral tradition) in the tractate "Tamid". According to the Talmud, these daily Psalms were originally recited on that day of the week by the Levites in the Temple in Jerusalem. From Rosh Chodesh Elul until Hoshanah Rabbah, Psalm 27 is recited twice daily following the morning and evening services. There is a Minhag (custom) to say Psalm 30 each morning of Chanukkah after Shacharit: some say this "instead" of the regular "Psalm for the Day", others say this additionally. When a Jew dies, a watch is kept over the body and Tehillim (Psalms) are recited constantly by sun or candlelight, until the burial service. Historically, this watch would be carried out by the immediate family – usually in shifts – but in contemporary practice, this service is provided by an employee of the funeral home orChevra kadisha. Many Jews complete the Book of Psalms on a weekly or monthly basis. Each week, some also say a Psalm connected to that week's events or the Torah portion read during that week. In addition, many Jews (notably Lubavitch, and other Chasidim) read the entire Book of Psalms prior to the morning service, on the Sabbath preceding the calculated appearance of the new moon. The reading of psalms is viewed in Jewish tradition as a vehicle for gaining God's favor. They are thus often specially recited in times of trouble, such as poverty, disease, or physical danger; in many synagogues, Psalms are recited after services for the security of the State of Israel. Note that Sefer ha-Chinuch[44] states that this practice is designed not to achieve favor, as such, but rather to inculcate belief in Divine Providence into one's consciousness – as consistent with Maimonides'general view on Providence. (Relatedly, the Hebrew verb for prayer – hitpalal התפלל – is in fact the reflexive form of palal פלל, to judge. Thus, "to pray" conveys the notion of "judging oneself": ultimately, the purpose of prayer – tefilah תפלה – is to transform ourselves; for the relationship between prayer and psalms – "tehillahand tefillah" – see S. R. Hirsch, Horeb §620. See also under Jewish services.) The Psalms in Christian worship[edit] Part of a series on Christianity JesusChrist [show] BibleFoundations [show] Theology[show] HistoryTradition [show] Related topics[show] DenominationsGroups [show]  Christianity portal vte St. Florian's psalter, 14th or 15th century, Old Polish Translation Children singing and playing music, illustration of Psalm 150 (Laudate Dominum). New Testament references show that the earliest Christians used the Psalms in worship, and the Psalms have remained an important part of worship in most Christian Churches. The Eastern Orthodox, Catholic, Presbyterian,Lutheran and Anglican Churches have always made systematic use of the Psalms, with a cycle for the recitation of all or most of them over the course of one or more weeks. In the early centuries of the Church, it was expected that any candidate for bishop would be able to recite the entire Psalter from memory, something they often learned automatically[45] during their time as monks. Paul the Apostle quotes psalms (specifically Psalms 14 and 53, which are nearly identical) as the basis for his theory of original sin, and includes the scripture in the Epistle to the Romans, chapter 3. Several conservative Protestant denominations sing only the Psalms (some churches also sing the small number of hymns found elsewhere in the Bible) in worship, and do not accept the use of any non-Biblical hymns; examples are the Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America, the Presbyterian Reformed Church (North America) and theFree Church of Scotland (Continuing). Some Psalms are among the best-known and best-loved passages of Scripture, with a popularity extending well beyond regular church-goers[citation needed][peacock term]. Psalm 22 is of particular importance during the season of Lent as a Psalm of continued faith during severe testing. Psalm 23, The LORD is My Shepherd, offers an immediately appealing message of comfort and is widely chosen for church funeral services, either as a reading or in one of several popular hymn settings; Psalm 51, Have mercy on me O God, called the Miserere from the first word in its Latin version, is by far the most sung Psalm of Orthodoxy[citation needed], in both Divine Liturgy and Hours, in the sacrament of repentance or confession, and in other settings; Psalm 82 is found in the Book of Common Prayer as a funeral recitation. Psalm 103, Bless the Lord, O my soul, is one of the best-known[citation needed] prayers of praise. The psalm was adapted for the musical Godspell; Psalm 137, By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down and wept, is a moody meditation upon living in slavery, and has been used in at least one spiritual[citation needed], as well as one well-known reggae song;[46] the Orthodox church often uses this hymn during Lent. This psalm was adapted for the song On the Willows in the musical Godspell. New translations and settings of the Psalms continue to be produced. An individually printed volume of Psalms for use in Christian religious rituals is called a Psalter. Eastern Orthodox Christianity[edit] See also: Kathisma Orthodox Christians and Greek-Catholics (Eastern Catholics who follow the Byzantine rite), have long made the Psalms an integral part of their corporate and private prayers. The official version of the Psalter used by the Orthodox Church is theSeptuagint. To facilitate its reading, the 150 Psalms are divided into 20 kathismata (Greek: καθίσματα; Slavonic: каѳисмы,kafismy; lit. "sittings") and each kathisma (Greek: κάθισμα; Slavonic: каѳисма, kafisma) is further subdivided into threestases (Greek: στάσεις, staseis lit. "standings", sing. στάσις, stasis), so-called because the faithful stand at the end of eachstasis for the Glory to the Father .... At Vespers and Matins, different kathismata are read at different times of the liturgical year and on different days of the week, according to the Church's calendar, so that all 150 psalms (20 kathismata) are read in the course of a week. DuringGreat Lent, the number of kathismata is increased so that the entire Psalter is read twice a week. In the twentieth century, some lay Christians have adopted a continuous reading of the Psalms on weekdays, praying the whole book in four weeks. Aside from kathisma readings, Psalms occupy a prominent place in every other Orthodox service including the services of the Hours and the Divine Liturgy. In particular, the penitential Psalm 50 is very widely used. Fragments of Psalms and individual verses are used as Prokimena (introductions to Scriptural readings) and Stichera. The bulk of Vespers would still be composed of Psalms even if the kathisma were to be disregarded; Psalm 119, "The Psalm of the Law", is the centerpiece of Matins on Saturdays, some Sundays, and the Funeral service. The entire book of Psalms is traditionally read out loud or chanted at the side of the deceased during the time leading up to the funeral, mirroring Jewish tradition. Oriental Christianity[edit] Several branches of Oriental Orthodox and those Eastern Catholics who follow one of the Oriental Rites will chant the entire Psalter during the course of a day during the Daily Office. This practice continues to be a requirement of monastics in the Oriental churches. Roman Catholic usage[edit] The Psalms have always been an important part of Catholic liturgy. The Liturgy of the Hours is centered on chanting or recitation of the Psalms, using fixed melodic formulas known as psalm tones. Early Catholics employed the Psalms widely in their individual prayers also; however, as knowledge of Latin (the language of theRoman Rite) became uncommon, this practice ceased among the unlearned. However, until the end of the Middle Ages, it was not unknown for the laity to join in the singing of the Little Office of Our Lady, which was a shortened version of the Liturgy of the Hours providing a fixed daily cycle of twenty-five psalms to be recited, and nine other psalms divided across Matins. The work of Bishop Richard Challoner in providing devotional materials in English meant that many of the psalms were familiar to English-speaking Catholics from the eighteenth century onwards. Challoner translated the entirety of the Lady Office into English, as well as Sunday Vespers and daily Compline. He also provided other individual Psalms such as 129/130 for prayer in his devotional books. Challoner is also noted for revising the Douay-Rheims Bible, and the translations he used in his devotional books are taken from this work. Until the Second Vatican Council the Psalms were either recited on a one-week or, less commonly (as in the case of Ambrosian rite), two-week cycle. Different one-week schemata were employed: most secular clergy followed the Roman distribution, while Monastic Houses almost universally followed that of St Benedict, with only a few congregations (such as the Benedictines of St Maur) following individualistic arrangements. The Breviary introduced in 1974 distributed the psalms over a four-week cycle. Monastic usage varies widely. Some use the four-week cycle of the secular clergy, many retain a one-week cycle, either following St Benedict's scheme or another of their own devising, while others opt for some other arrangement. Official approval was also given to other arrangements (see "Short" Breviaries in the 20th and early 21st century America for an in-progress study) by which the complete Psalter is recited in a one-week or two-week cycle. These arrangements are used principally by Catholic contemplative religious orders, such as that of the Trappists (see for example the Divine Office schedule at New Melleray Abbey). The General Instruction of the Liturgy of the Hours, 122 sanctions three modes of singing/recitation for the Psalms: directly (all sing or recite the entire psalm); antiphonally (two choirs or sections of the congregation sing or recite alternate verses or strophes); and responsorially (the cantor or choir sings or recites the verses while the congregation sings or recites a given response after each verse). Of these three the antiphonal mode is the most widely followed. Over the centuries, the use of complete Psalms in the liturgy declined. After the Second Vatican Council (which also permitted the use of vernacular languages in the liturgy), longer psalm texts were reintroduced into the Mass, during the readings. The revision of the Roman Missal after the Second Vatican Councilreintroduced the singing or recitation of a more substantial section of a Psalm, in some cases an entire Psalm, after the first Reading from Scripture. This Psalm, called the Responsorial Psalm, is usually sung or recited responsorially, although the General Instruction of the Roman Missal, 61 permits direct recitation. Protestant usage[edit] Psalm 1 in a form of the Sternhold and Hopkins version widespread in Anglican usage before the English Civil War (1628 printing). It was from this version that the armies sang before going into battle. Following the Protestant Reformation, versified translations of many of the Psalms were set as hymns. These were particularly popular in the Calvinist tradition, where in the past they were typically sung to the exclusion of hymns. Calvinhimself made some French translations of the Psalms for church usage, but the completed Psalter eventually used in church services consisted exclusively of translations by Clément Marot and Théodore de Bèze, on melodies by a number of composers, including Louis Bourgeois and a certain Maistre Pierre. Martin Luther's A Mighty Fortress Is Our God is based on Psalm 46. Among famous hymn settings of the Psalter were the Scottish Psalter and the paraphrases by Isaac Watts. The first book printed in North America was a collection of Psalm settings, the Bay Psalm Book (1640). By the 20th century, they were mostly replaced by hymns in church services. However, the Psalms are popular for private devotion among many Protestants and still used in many churches for traditional worship.[47] There exists in some circles a custom of reading one Psalm and one chapter of Proverbs a day, corresponding to the day of the month. Metrical Psalms are still very popular among many Reformed Churches. Anglican usage[edit] Anglican chant is a method of singing prose versions of the Psalms. In the early 17th century, when the King James Bible was introduced, the metrical arrangements by Thomas Sternhold and John Hopkins were also popular and were provided with printed tunes. This version and the New Version of the Psalms of David by Tate and Brady produced in the late seventeenth century (see article on Metrical Psalter) remained the normal congregational way of singing psalms in the Church of England until well into the nineteenth century. In Great Britain, the Coverdale psalter still lies at the heart of daily worship in Cathedrals and many parish churches. The new Common Worship service book has a companion psalter in modern English. The version of the Psalter in the American Book of Common Prayer prior to the 1979 edition is a sixteenth-centuryCoverdale Psalter. The Psalter in the American Book of Common Prayer of 1979 is a new translation, with some attempt to keep the rhythms of the Coverdale Psalter. Psalms in the Rastafari movement[edit] The Psalms are one of the most popular parts of the Bible among followers of the Rastafari movement.[48] Rasta singerPrince Far I released an atmospheric spoken version of the psalms, Psalms for I, set to a roots reggae backdrop from The Aggrovators.     ebay3527/101

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