Jazz Trumpeter Report Card African American Blue Note Memphis Louis Smith

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Seller: memorabilia111 ✉️ (807) 100%, Location: Ann Arbor, Michigan, US, Ships to: US & many other countries, Item: 176278959868 JAZZ TRUMPETER REPORT CARD AFRICAN AMERICAN BLUE NOTE MEMPHIS LOUIS SMITH. List of jazz venues in the United States. Average monthly rainfall is especially high in March through May, and December, while August and September are relatively drier. April 13, 1979. Racist violence continued unabated. A fantastically rare very rare report card for  JUNIOR HIGH SHOOL  FOR Edward (Louis) Smith a Blue Note Trumpeter. He died in Ann Arbor, Michigan and was a big part of the University of Michigan school of music. Edward Louis Smith (May 20, 1931 – August 20, 2016) was an American jazz trumpeter from Memphis, Tennessee. Louis graduated from Manassas High School, where he was a member of the Manassas High School Rhythm Bombers, in 1948. Louis went on to attend Tennessee State University, where he was a member of the famed Tennessee State Collegians, and performed at Carnegie Hall with Lionel Hampton, Billy Eckstein, and Sarah Vaughn. Louis graduated from Tennessee State with a Bachelor of Science in Music and was drafted into the United States Army where he played in the Special Services Band After graduating from Tennessee State University he attended graduate school at the University of Michigan. While studying at the University of Michigan, he played with visiting musicians such as Dizzy Gillespie, Miles Davis, Thad Jones and Billy Mitchell,[1] before going on to play with Sonny Stitt, Count Basie and Al McKibbon, Cannonball Adderley, Percy Heath, Philly Joe Jones, Lou Donaldson, Donald Byrd, Kenny Dorham and Zoot Sims. Smith decided to forgo being a full-time musician to take a job a director of Atlanta's Booker T. Washington High School. There he recorded two albums for Blue Note. REPORT CARD SIGNED BY PARENT, TEACHER ETC.
Smith, Louis 5/20/1931 - 8/20/2016 Ann Arbor Edward Louis Smith was born May 20, 1931 in Memphis, TN to Walter Smith and Betty Little-Smith. Although his father was an ice delivery man, the love of music, specifically Jazz, Blues, and Gospel, was a huge part of Black culture in Memphis, and Walter Smith had big dreams for Louis. Walter purchased an old used trumpet and Louis would practice playing his horn after school every day. Betty liked to tell the story about how Louis would practice playing his horn and how he played so loud and he sounded so bad that the neighbors would complain. One night the police were called to the Smith residence. However, Betty and Walter were able to convince the police that one day Louis would become a great musician, and with that, the police told the neighbors to stop complaining and leave the boy alone because one day he's going to be great. Walter was determined to help Louis to establish a solid musical foundation, and while Louis was still a teenager, his father would take him to Beale St. for nightly jam sessions where Louis would spend a great deal of time watching, listening, and sitting in with the great jazz and blues musicians of the time. Later, as we all know, this would become his life. Louis graduated from Manassas High School, where he was a member of the Manassas High School Rhythm Bombers, in 1948. Louis went on to attend Tennessee State University, where he was a member of the famed Tennessee State Collegians, and performed at Carnegie Hall with Lionel Hampton, Billy Eckstein, and Sarah Vaughn. Louis graduated from Tennessee State with a Bachelor of Science in Music and was drafted into the United States Army where he played in the Special Services Band. In 1955, following his tour of duty, Louis decided to pursue a more stable career as an educator in Atlanta, Georgia. Since then, Louis has taught music, and served as a band director at Tennessee State University, Kentucky State University, and the University of Michigan. Louis also served as a music teacher, and band instructor with the Ann Arbor Public Schools from 1968 to 1993. Louis signed his first recording contract with Blue Note Records in 1957, and released, "Here Comes Louis Smith." Shortly after the release of his second album, "Smithville," he joined the Horace Silver Quintet, in 1958. Louis' daughter Edwaa Smith was born August 2, 1962. In 1968, while teaching music and band at Forsythe Junior High School in Ann Arbor Michigan, he met teaching colleague, Harriet L. Halpern, aka Lulu. Louis and Lulu were married in 1976. Louis continued to perform and record throughout his teaching career and his marriage to Lulu. In 1990, due to unforeseen circumstances, it became necessary for Louis and Lulu to take temporary custody of their grandchildren Michael D. Collins, Jr. and Tiffany Collins. Louis and Lulu raised their grandchildren for the following two years until turning them over to the care and custody of their dad, who continued on as a single father for the next 15 years, with the assistance of Louis and Lulu each and every summer. Louis served as the Director of Jazz Bands at the University of Michigan from 1971 to 1987. Louis performed as a staff musician with Motown Records, traveled and recorded with greats such as, the Temptations and Marvin Gaye, Ashford and Simpson, and many others. He was featured on the classic R&B recordings, "Papa was a Rolling Stone," and "What's Going On." In 1978, Louis signed his next recording contract with Steeplechase Records, where he released a total of 12 albums. Louis has performed at the Montreux (Switzerland) and Nice (France) Jazz Festivals, as well as, 25 consecutive years at the International Detroit Jazz Festival. Louis taught jazz improvisation in Montreux, Switzerland, Tuebegin, Germany, LaHague, Netherlands, and the Eastman School of Music. Louis has facilitated jazz clinics at numerous high schools and colleges, as well as, the Annual Conference of the International Association of Jazz Educators. Louis is a former president of the Michigan Chapter of the International Association Jazz Educators, and was in charge of adjudications for the Montreux-Detroit Jazz Festival. Louis has performed in live concerts at numerous venues including Carnegie Hall, Birdland, Newport Jazz Festival, Grande Parade du Jazz, St. Petersburg, Moscow, and the Netherlands. In 2005 while vacationing in Hilton Head, Virginia, Louis suffered a massive stroke leaving him partially paralyzed and aphasic. Louis' career in music and education abruptly came to an end and he and Lulu began the journey down the long road of recovery. Although, Louis was never able to completely regain the power of speech, he nevertheless made some progress in his ability to play his trumpet. For the next eleven years, Lulu was his sole caretaker. On the morning of Saturday, August 20, 2016, it was the last curtain call for Louis. He passed away at the Glacier Hills Rehabilitation Center as he was preparing for his occupational therapy session. Edward L. Smith is survived by his wife Harriet L. Smith (Lulu); daughter, Edwaa Smith; son, Michael D. Collins, Sr.; grandson, Maurice Cumberbatch; grandson, Michael D. Collins, Jr.; granddaughter, Tiffany Collins; and great-granddaughters, Louise "Lulu" Collins and Alexia Cumberbatch. We're all going to miss you so much Pops. We love you. The family will receive friends on Monday, August 29, 2016 at the Nie Family Funeral Home, 2400 Carpenter Road, Ann Arbor, MI from 4:00 PM until 8:00 PM. A funeral service will take place on Tuesday at the funeral home at 11:00 AM with visitation for one hour prior. . Edward Louis Smith (May 20, 1931 – August 20, 2016) was an American jazz trumpeter from Memphis, Tennessee.[1] After graduating from Tennessee State University he attended graduate school at the University of Michigan. While studying at the University of Michigan, he played with visiting musicians such as Dizzy Gillespie, Miles Davis, Thad Jones and Billy Mitchell,[1] before going on to play with Sonny Stitt, Count Basie and Al McKibbon, Cannonball Adderley, Percy Heath, Philly Joe Jones, Lou Donaldson, Donald Byrd, Kenny Dorham and Zoot Sims.[1] Smith decided to forgo being a full-time musician to take a job a director of Atlanta's Booker T. Washington High School. There he recorded two albums for Blue Note. The first, Here Comes Louis Smith, originally recorded for the Boston-based Transition Records, featured Cannonball Adderley (then under contract to Mercury) playing under the pseudonym "Buckshot La Funke",[2] Tommy Flanagan, Duke Jordan, Art Taylor and Doug Watkins. He also replaced Donald Byrd for Horace Silver's Live at the Newport 1958 set. His playing on the set was one of his best efforts and was described by one critic as "monstrous". He was a prolific composer and successful band director leaving Booker T. Washington to become director of the Jazz Ensemble at the University of Michigan and a teacher in Ann Arbor's public school system. He later recorded for the SteepleChase label.[3] Smith suffered a stroke in 2006, and was seen occasionally enjoying live jazz in the Detroit/Ann Arbor area, but did not return to performing.[4] His cousin Booker Little was also a trumpeter. Smith died on August 20, 2016, at age 85.[5] Contents 1 Discography 1.1 As leader 1.2 As sideman 2 References Discography As leader 1958: Here Comes Louis Smith (Blue Note) 1958: Smithville (Blue Note) 1978: Just Friends (SteepleChase, 1978) 1979: Prancin' (SteepleChase) 1990: Ballads for Lulu (SteepleChase) 1994: Silvering (SteepleChase) 1994: Strike up the Band (SteepleChase) 1995: The Very Thought of You (SteepleChase) 1996: I Waited for You (SteepleChase) 1997: There Goes My Heart (SteepleChase) 2000: Once in a While (SteepleChase) 2000: Soon (SteepleChase) 2001: The Bopsmith (SteepleChase) 2004: Louisville (SteepleChase) As sideman With Kenny Burrell Swingin' (Blue Note, 1956 [rel. 1980]) Blue Lights Volume 1 (Blue Note, 1958) Blue Lights Volume 2 (Blue Note, 1958) With Horace Silver Live at Newport '58 (Blue Note, 1958 [2003]) With Booker Little and Young Men From Memphis Down Home Reunion (United Artists, 1959 Fresh Sounds 1642) Many factors have shaped jazz in Ann Arbor, but trumpeter and educator Louis Smith has to be at the top of the list for modern jazz and education.  Sean Dobbins, Rick Roe, Justin Walter and Ingrid Racine will testify to his grace, wisdom, strength and total honesty as a teacher.  He encouraged a professional attitude and exponential musical growth from middle school students.  His students could play rings around others years older!  Jazz fans recognized the presence of mastery when Louis put his horn to his lips whether to play lightning speed bebop or a languid, loving ballad.  Louis represented Ann Arbor around the globe through his recordings for Steeplechase Records and participation at International Association Of Jazz Educator Conferences.  Even with these accomplishments, I remember that Louis Smith was taking trumpet lessons after retirement from the Ann Arbor Public Schools.  He wanted to improve his "long tones" and strengthen his embouchure.  His presence on the bandstand was warm, inclusive and intelligent.  He never talked down to you. Yet, you always learned something from Louis Smith and Louis was always learning more about his craft. Even after his stroke, Louis continued to learn and share life lessons.  His determination to live with dignity, purpose and creativity continued with great support from his generous, supportive wife Lulu and the University Of Michigan Aphasia team.  Louis and Lulu attended UMS, Kerrytown and Detroit Jazz Festival events after his stroke.  If Louis couldn't play with his former bravado, he could listen and love the music along with others.  And, without fail, the concert host would acknowledge the presence of greatness in the house:  Louis Smith.  Louis, who was always attired in first-class style, would then raise his big hand, wave, grin and make eye contact with music friends.  Despite aphasia, Louis Smith communicated. Louis' legacy lives on with his legion of students, his impressive Blue Note and Steeplechase Records, his contributions to jazz education on a national level and his beautiful smile that included twinkling eyes.  I'll never forget him.  If you ever met him or spent time with him, you'll agree with me.   If you haven't heard his music, youtube has many classic Blue Note sessions available.  Listen and learn why trumpeters such as Nicholas Paytonand Brian Lynch count Louis Smith as a significant influence.  His influence on jazz in Ann Arbor was beyond significant.  It was penultimate.   Louis Smith Discography 1958 (age 27) Louis Smith Quintet Louis Smith, trumpet; Cannonball Adderley as "Buckshot La Funke", alto sax; Duke Jordan, piano; Doug Watkins, bass; Art Taylor, drums. Audio Sonic Sound, NYC, February 4, 1958 Tribute To Brownie Transition TRLP 30; Blue Note 45-1701, BLP 1584 Brill's Blues Transition TRLP 30; Blue Note 45-1700, BLP 1584 South Side Transition TRLP 30; Blue Note BLP 1584 * Transition TRLP 30   Here Comes Louis Smith (not released) * Blue Note BLP 1584, CDP 7243 8 52438 2 0   Here Comes Louis Smith * Blue Note 45-1701   Louis Smith - Tribute To Brownie / Star Dust * Blue Note 45-1700   Louis Smith - Brill's Blues, Part 1 & 2 Louis Smith Quintet Louis Smith, trumpet; Cannonball Adderley as "Buckshot La Funke", alto sax #1,3; Tommy Flanagan, piano; Doug Watkins, bass; Art Taylor, drums. Audio Sonic Sound, NYC, February 9, 1958 1. Ande Transition TRLP 30; Blue Note BLP 1584 2. Star Dust Transition TRLP 30; Blue Note 45-1701, BLP 1584 3. Val's Blues Transition TRLP 30; Blue Note BLP 1584 * Transition TRLP 30   Here Comes Louis Smith (not released) * Blue Note BLP 1584, CDP 7243 8 52438 2 0   Here Comes Louis Smith * Blue Note 45-1701   Louis Smith - Tribute To Brownie / Star Dust Louis Smith Quintet Louis Smith, trumpet; Charlie Rouse, tenor sax; Sonny Clark, piano; Paul Chambers, bass; Art Taylor, drums. Van Gelder Studio, Hackensack, NJ, March 30, 1958 tk.1 Bakin' (aka Tunesmith) Blue Note (J) BNJ-61008/10 tk.8 There Will Never Be Another You Blue Note BLP 1594 tk.11 Au Privave Blue Note (J) BNJ-61008/10 tk.13 Smithville Blue Note 45-1715, BLP 1594 tk.16 Embraceable You Blue Note BLP 1594 tk.17 Later - tk.18 Wetu - * Blue Note (J) BNJ-61008/10   Various Artists - The Other Side Of Blue Note 1500 Series * Blue Note BLP 1594   Louis Smith - Smithville * Blue Note 45-1715   Louis Smith - Smithville, Part 1 & 2 1978 (age 47) Louis Smith Quintet Louis Smith, trumpet, flugelhorn; George Coleman, tenor sax; Harold Mabern, piano; Jamil Nasser, bass; Ray Mosca, drums. March 19, 1978 Blues For Jimmy SteepleChase (D) SCS-1096 Lulu - Vaughn's Bounce - Quiet Nights SteepleChase (D) SCCD-31096 I Remember Clifford SteepleChase (D) SCS-1096 Oleo - Minor Bit - * SteepleChase (D) SCS-1096, SCCD-31096   Louis Smith Quintet - Just Friends 1979 Louis Smith Quintet Louis Smith, trumpet, flugelhorn; Junior Cook, tenor sax; Roland Hanna, piano; Sam Jones, bass; Billy Hart, drums. April 13, 1979 One For Nils SteepleChase (D) SCS-1121 Chanson De Louise - Ryan's Groove - Fats - Prancin' - I Can't Get Started - Chanson De Louise #2 SteepleChase (D) SCCD-31121 * SteepleChase (D) SCS-1121, SCCD-31121   Louis Smith Quintet - Prancin' 1990 (age 59) Louis Smith Quartet Louis Smith, trumpet; Jim McNeely, piano; Bob Cranshaw, bass; Keith Copeland, drums. March 22, 1990 A Portrait Of Jenny SteepleChase (D) SCCD-31268 Lulu - Time After Time - Polkadots And Moonbeams - Old Folks - Smoke Gets In Your Eyes - Laura - Cry Me A River - Don't Blame Me - * SteepleChase (D) SCCD-31268   Louis Smith Quartet - Ballads For Lulu 1991 (age 60) Louis Smith Sextet Louis Smith, trumpet, flugelhorn; Vincent Herring, alto sax; Junior Cook, tenor sax; Kevin Hays, piano; Steve LaSpina, bass; Leroy Williams, drums. SteepleChase Digital Studio, August, 1991 I Hear A Rhapsody SteepleChase (D) SCCD-31294 It's All Right - Don't Misunderstand - Edwaa - Stablemates - Lover - Night And Day - Strike Up The Band - * SteepleChase (D) SCCD-31294   Louis Smith Sextet - Strike Up The Band 1993 Louis Smith Quintet Louis Smith, trumpet, flugelhorn; Von Freeman, tenor sax; Jodie Christian, piano; Eddie De Haas, bass; Wilbur Campbell, drums. SteepleChase Digital Studio, April, 1993 I'll Remember April SteepleChase (D) SCCD-31336 Au Privave - Roadies - You Don't Know What Love Is - Body And Soul - Silvering - Stella By Starlight - Blues For Alice - * SteepleChase (D) SCCD-31336   Louis Smith Quintet - Silvering 1994 Louis Smith - Jodie Christian Duo Louis Smith, trumpet; Jodie Christian, piano. SteepleChase Digital Studio, October, 1994 My Ideal SteepleChase (D) SCCD-31361 Don't Take Your Love Away From Me - Mihoko's Tune - I Will Wait For You - But Not For Me - A Cottage For Sale - The Very Thought Of You - A Child Is Born - I Should Care - * SteepleChase (D) SCCD-31361   Louis Smith & Jodie Christian - The Very Thought Of You 1995 Louis Smith Quintet Louis Smith, trumpet; Vincent Herring, alto, tenor sax; Richard Wyands, piano; Dennis Irwin, bass; Kenny Washington, drums. SteepleChase Digital Studio, November, 1995 Dig SteepleChase (D) SCCD-31385 Solar - I Waited For You - Walkin' - Half Nelson - Vierd Blues - Milestones - Bye Bye Blackbird - * SteepleChase (D) SCCD-31385   Louis Smith Quintet - I Waited For You 1997 Louis Smith Quintet Louis Smith, trumpet; Bruce Williams, alto sax; George Cables, piano; Jay Anderson, bass; Al Harewood, drums. SteepleChase Digital Studio, March, 1997 SGB SteepleChase (D) SCCD-31415 Ray's Idea - Abe's Axe - Prince Albert - You Don't Know What Love Is - Poor Butterfly - Blue Bossa - There Goes My Heart - * SteepleChase (D) SCCD-31415   Louis Smith Quintet - There Goes My Heart Louis Smith Quintet Louis Smith, trumpet; Jimmy Greene, tenor sax; Andy LaVerne, piano; Jay Anderson, bass; Billy Drummond, drums. September, 1997 Mike2 SteepleChase (D) SCCD-31442 Soon - Angel Eyes - Autumn Leaves - Room 1426 - I Should Care - All God's Children Got Rhythm - * SteepleChase (D) SCCD-31442   Louis Smith - Soon 1998 Louis Smith Quartet Louis Smith, trumpet; Doug Raney, guitar; Hugo Rasmussen, bass; Keith Copeland, drums. Audiophon Recording Studio, Allerod, Denmark, May, 1998 Just Friends SteepleChase (D) SCCD-31464 Once In A While - Over The Rainbow - Tune Up - Don't Blame Me - Once I Had A Secret Love - Sandu - There Is No Greater Love - * SteepleChase (D) SCCD-31464   Louis Smith - Once In A While 2000 Louis Smith Quintet Louis Smith, trumpet; Jon Gordon, alto sax; Michael Weiss, piano; Jay Anderson, bass; Joe Farnsworth, drums. April, 2000 Val's Blues SteepleChase (D) SCCD-31489 For Heaven's Sake - The Way You Look Tonight - I Love You - Ed's Love - A Ghost Of A Chance - Sweet Clifford - * SteepleChase (D) SCCD-31489   Louis Smith - The Bopsmith 2003 (age 72) Louis Smith Quintet Louis Smith, trumpet; Jon Gordon, alto sax; Michael Cochrane, piano; Calvin Hill, bass; Jeff Hirshfield, drums. April, 2003 Buzzy SteepleChase (D) SCCD-31552 Isfahan - Algo Bueno - I'll Close My Eyes - Ande - For All We Know - Days Of Wine And Roses - Scrapple From The Apple - * SteepleChase (D) SCCD-31552   Louis Smith Quintet - Louisville Louis Smith was a talented, but underrecorded, straight-ahead bop trumpeter who led two dates in the ’50s before retiring to teach at the University of Michigan and the nearby Ann Arbor Public School system. For most of his career, he remained a teacher, making a brief comeback in the late ’70s before returning to education. It wasn’t until the mid-’90s that he began a recording career in earnest, turning out a series of albums for the Steeplechase label. A native of Memphis, TN, Louis Smith began playing trumpet as a teenager. He graduated high school with a scholarship to Tennessee State University, where he studied music and became a member of the Tennessee State Collegians. Following his college graduation, Smith did a little graduate work at Tennessee before transferring to the University of Michigan, where he studied with professor Clifford Lillya. At Michigan, he had opportunities to play with traveling musicians, including Miles Davis and Dizzy Gillespie. In January 1954, Smith was drafted into the Army, spending a little over a year-and-a-half in his tour of duty. Once he left the Army in late 1955, he began teaching at the Booker T. Washington High School in Atlanta, GA. While teaching at Booker T. Washington, Smith continued playing bop and hard bop in clubs, and was able to jam with Cannonball Adderley, Kenny Dorham, Donald Byrd, Lou Donaldson, Zoot Sims, and Philly Joe Jones, among many others. In 1956, he made his recording debut as a sideman on Kenny Burrell’s Swingin’. A year later, he had the opportunity to lead his own recording session for Tom Wilson’s Boston-based label, Transition. He assembled a quintet featuring Cannonball Adderley (who performed under the pseudonym Buckshot La Funke), bassist Doug Watkins, drummer Art Taylor, and pianists Duke Jordan and Tommy Flanagan, who alternated on the date. Transition went out of business before the label had the chance to release the record. Blue Note chief Alfred Lion purchased all the Transition masters and signed Smith to an exclusive contract, releasing the session as Here Comes Louis Smith. During 1958, the trumpeter played on two Blue Note sessions — Kenny Burrell’s Blue Lights and Booker Little’s Booker Little 4 and Max Roach — in addition to leading the date that became Smithville. That brief burst of activity turned out to be his only recording dates for 20 years. Smith moved back to the Ann Arbor, MI area, where he taught at the University of Michigan and public schools. Between 1978 and 1979, he cut a pair of albums — Just Friends and Prancin’ — before returning to teaching. A decade later, Smith began his recording career in earnest. After playing on Mickey Tucker’s Sweet Lotus Lips in 1989, he signed with Steeplechase and recorded Ballads for Lulu in 1990. He didn’t return to the studio for another four years, but he did record two albums — Silvering and Strike Up the Band — in 1994. The Very Thought of You appeared in 1995. A year later, Smith recorded I Waited for You, which was followed by There Goes My Heart in 1997. Retired from teaching, Smith suffered a stroke in 2006, and is in convalescence at home, but is recovering Here Comes Louis Smith is the debut album by American trumpeter Louis Smith recorded in 1958 and released on the Blue Note label.[1] Originally recorded for the Transition label, the company went out of business shortly afterwards and before the recording could be released. The album masters were acquired by Blue Note's Alfred Lion.[2] Contents 1 Reception 2 Track listing 3 Personnel 4 References Reception Professional ratings Review scores Source Rating Allmusic 4.5/5 stars[3] The Allmusic review by Scott Yanow awarded the album 4½ stars and stated: "Louis Smith had a brilliant debut on this Blue Note album, his first of two before becoming a full-time teacher."[3] Track listing All compositions by Louis Smith except as indicated "Tribute to Brownie" (Duke Pearson) - 6:38 "Brill's Blues" - 8:22 "Ande" - 6:42 "Stardust" (Hoagy Carmichael) - 5:20 "South Side" - 8:38 "Val's Blues" - 6:37 Personnel Louis Smith - trumpet Cannonball Adderley (credited as "Buckshot La Funke") - alto saxophone (tracks 1-3, 5 & 6) Tommy Flanagan (tracks 3, 4 & 6), Duke Jordan (tracks 1, 2 & 5) - piano Doug Watkins - bass Art Taylor - drums Louis Smith was a talented but under-recorded straight-ahead bop trumpeter who led two dates in the '50s before retiring to teach at the University of Michigan and the nearby Ann Arbor Public School system. For most of his career, he remained a teacher, making a brief comeback in the late '70s before returning to education. It wasn't until the mid-'90s that he resumed a recording career in earnest, turning out a series of albums for the Steeplechase label. A native of Memphis, Tennessee, Smith began playing trumpet as a teenager. He graduated high school with a scholarship to Tennessee State University, where he studied music and became a member of the Tennessee State Collegians. Following his college graduation, Smith did a little graduate work at Tennessee before transferring to the University of Michigan, where he studied with professor Clifford Lillya. At Michigan, he had opportunities to play with traveling musicians, including Miles Davis and Dizzy Gillespie. In January 1954, Smith was drafted into the Army, spending a little over a year and a half in his tour of duty. Once he left the Army in late 1955, he began teaching at the Booker T. Washington High School in Atlanta, Georgia. While teaching at Booker T. Washington, Smith continued playing bop and hard bop in clubs, and was able to jam with Cannonball Adderley, Kenny Dorham, Donald Byrd, Lou Donaldson, Zoot Sims, and Philly Joe Jones, among many others. Here Comes Louis SmithIn 1956, he made his recording debut as a sideman on Kenny Burrell's Swingin'. A year later, he had the opportunity to lead his own recording session for Tom Wilson's Boston-based Transition label. He assembled a quintet featuring Cannonball Adderley (who performed under the pseudonym Buckshot La Funke), bassist Doug Watkins, drummer Art Taylor, and pianists Duke Jordan and Tommy Flanagan, who alternated on the date. Transition went out of business before the label had the chance to release the record. Blue Note chief Alfred Lion purchased all the Transition masters and signed Smith to an exclusive contract, releasing the session as Here Comes Louis Smith. During 1958, the trumpeter played on two Blue Note sessions -- Kenny Burrell's Blue Lights and Booker Little's Booker Little 4 and Max Roach -- in addition to leading the date that became Smithville. That brief burst of activity turned out to be his only recording dates for 20 years. Just FriendsSmith moved back to the Ann Arbor, Michigan area, where he taught at the University of Michigan and public schools. Between 1978 and 1979, he cut a pair of albums -- Just Friends and Prancin' -- before returning to teaching. A decade later, Smith resumed his recording career in earnest. After playing on Mickey Tucker's Sweet Lotus Lips in 1989, he signed with Steeplechase and recorded Ballads for Lulu in 1990. He didn't return to the studio for another four years, but he did record two albums -- Silvering and Strike Up the Band -- in 1994. The Very Thought of You appeared in 1995. A year later, Smith recorded I Waited for You, which was followed by There Goes My Heart in 1997. Retired from teaching, Smith suffered a stroke in 2006, and subsequently became a regular presence among audience members at Southeastern Michigan jazz venues but did not return to performing or recording. He died in Ann Arbor in August 2016. An 80th birthday tribute planned for jazzman Louis Smith Saturday night will include plenty of great bebop and, of course, a cake. Smith, the much-loved Ann Arbor trumpeter and music educator, would love it if friends would stop by and say hello at the concert, put on by the Paul Keller Ensemble. The group plans to perform some of Smith’s compositions, as well as other works at their new home, the Zal Gaz Grotto Club. A stroke in 2005 slowed Smith, but didn’t stop him, said his wife, LuLu Smith, herself recovering from some recent surgery. Rehabilitation continues, and although he has difficulty speaking, he is able to walk without a cane, and has also been able to sing. “We’re just thrilled he’s doing as well as he can at 80 and after that severe stroke. It was completely debilitating to him, and he’s made a miraculous recovery,” said Keller. PREVIEW Louis Smith 80th Birthday Tribute Who: The Paul Keller Ensemble (bassist Paul Keller, pianist Duncan McMillan, drummer Sean Dobbins, trumpeter Paul Finkbeiner, saxophonist Doug Horn, trombonist Chris Smith and vocalist Sarah D'Angelo). What: Birthday celebration for educator, recording artist and trumpeter Louis Smith. Tunes by Smith, Dizzy Gillespie, Count Basie, Duke Ellington, Art Blakey and more. Sarah D'Angelo will sing gems from the Great American Songbook. Where: Zal Gaz Grottolub, 2070 W. Stadium Blvd. When: 8-11:30 p.m. Saturday, May 28. How much: $10. Besides bassist Keller, the ensemble consists of pianist Duncan McMillan, drummer Sean Dobbins, trumpeter Paul Finkbeiner, saxophonist Doug Horn and trombonist Chris Smith. Sarah D'Angelo, from Belleville, is the group’s new vocalist (long-time singer Susan Chastain has relocated to Florida). “This is really just a chance for everybody to meet and greet Louis and wish him a happy birthday personally. We’ll have a cake, we’ll play a few of his tunes, but it’s not going to be a whole night of Louis Smith music. Sarah is going to do some of her stuff, Paul Finkbeiner will be playing trumpet, and I know that’s going to make Louis happy, to have a good jazz trumpeter there.” The PKE will play a variety of original sextet charts by Keller and his bandmates in the classic jazz style. Selections will include tunes by Smith, Dizzy Gillespie, Count Basie, Duke Ellington, Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers. D'Angelo will sing familiar gems from the Great American Songbook This show will be the first chance many area jazz fans will have to hear D’Angelo, Keller noted. Louis-Smith.jpg Louis Smith was a recording artist for the prestigious Blue Note label. During his career, Smith, a former artist on the Blue Note label (among his albums are the acclaimed “Here Comes Louis Smith” and “Smithville”), performed with artists such as Miles Davis, Blakey and Gillespie. After he retired from performing, he settled in Ann Arbor, where he taught for many years at the University of Michigan and in the Ann Arbor public schools, influencing countless young musicians. “We will be playing a few of his famous compositions from some of his Blue Note records from the late ‘50s that he made with Cannonball Adderly, Art Taylor and Paul Chambers,” Keller added. In addition, two of the band members — Chris Smith and Sean Dobbins — are former bandmates of Smith and plan to offer short testimonials. “In the jazz pantheon, Louis Smith is right there as one of the greats. He was touted as being the next Clifford Brown. He’s dyed in the wool bebop,” Keller said.” “(He) could have lived anywhere and become a major trumpet star in New York or Paris or wherever, but he chose to live in Ann Arbor. … He wanted to come off the road and teach — he decided to make a positive contribution to the lives of thousands of music students. Ann Arbor has been fortunate to have had him living in this area for 30 years. He’s a pillar of our community.” Memphis is a city in the U.S. state of Tennessee. It is the seat of Shelby County in the southwest part of the state and is situated along the Mississippi River. With a population of 633,104 at the 2020 U.S. census,[2] Memphis is the second-most populous city in Tennessee, after Nashville. It is the fifth-most populous city in the Southeast, the nation's 28th-largest overall, and the largest city bordering the Mississippi River. The Memphis metropolitan area includes West Tennessee and the greater Mid-South region, which includes portions of neighboring Arkansas, Mississippi, and the Missouri Bootheel. One of the more historic and culturally significant cities of the southern U.S., Memphis has a wide variety of landscapes and distinct neighborhoods. The first European explorer to visit the area of present-day Memphis was Spanish conquistador Hernando de Soto in 1541. The high Chickasaw Bluffs protecting the location from the waters of the Mississippi was contested by Spanish, French, and English colonizers as Memphis developed. By 1819, when modern Memphis was founded, it was part of United States territory. John Overton, James Winchester, and Andrew Jackson founded the city.[6] Based on the wealth of cotton plantations and river traffic along the Mississippi, Memphis grew into one of the largest cities of the Antebellum South. After the American Civil War and the end of slavery, the city continued to grow into the 20th century. It became among the largest world markets for cotton and lumber.[7] Home to Tennessee's largest African-American population, Memphis played a prominent role in the American Civil Rights Movement. Leader Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated here in 1968 after activities supporting a strike by the city's maintenance workers. The National Civil Rights Museum was established there and is a Smithsonian affiliate institution. Since the civil rights era, Memphis has become one of the nation's leading commercial centers in transportation and logistics.[8] The largest employer is FedEx, which maintains its global air hub at Memphis International Airport. This is now the busiest cargo airport in the world. The International Port of Memphis also hosts the fifth-busiest inland water port in the U.S.[9] The Globalization and World Cities Research Network considers Memphis a "Sufficiency" level global city as of 2020.[10] Memphis is a center for media and entertainment, notably a historic music scene.[11] With blues clubs on Beale Street originating the unique Memphis blues sound, the city has been nicknamed the "Home of the Blues". Its music has continued to be shaped by a multicultural mix of influences: country, rock and roll, soul, and hip-hop. The city is home to a major professional sports team, the Grizzlies of the NBA. Other attractions include Graceland, the Memphis Pyramid, Sun Studio, the Blues Hall of Fame and Stax Museum of American Soul Music. Memphis-style barbecue has achieved international prominence, and the city hosts the annual World Championship Barbecue Cooking Contest, which attracts more than 100,000 visitors each year. Higher-level educational institutions include the University of Memphis and Rhodes College. Contents 1 History 1.1 Early history 1.2 19th century 1.3 Postwar years, Reconstruction and Democratic control 1.4 Yellow Jack 1.5 Late 19th century 1.6 20th century 1.7 21st century to present 2 Geography 2.1 Cityscape 2.2 Riverfront 2.3 De-annexation 2.4 Aquifer 2.5 Climate 3 Demographics 3.1 Religion 3.2 Crime 4 Economy 5 Arts and culture 5.1 Cultural events 5.2 Music 5.3 Cuisine 5.4 Visual art 5.5 Literature 5.6 Tourism 5.6.1 Points of interest 5.6.2 Museums and art collections 5.6.3 Cemeteries 6 Sports 7 Parks and recreation 8 Law and government 9 Education 10 Media 10.1 Newspapers 10.2 Television 10.3 Radio 10.4 FM stations 10.5 AM stations 10.6 Cultural references 10.6.1 Music 10.6.2 Film and television 11 Infrastructure 11.1 Transportation 11.1.1 Highways 11.1.2 Railroads 11.1.2.1 Railroads, common freight carriers 11.1.2.2 Railroads, passenger carriers 11.1.3 Airports 11.1.4 River port 11.1.5 Bridges 11.2 Utilities 11.3 Health care 12 Notable people 13 Twin towns – sister cities 14 See also 15 References 16 Further reading 17 External links History Main article: History of Memphis, Tennessee For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Memphis, Tennessee. Early history Occupying a substantial bluff rising from the Mississippi River, the site of Memphis has been a natural location for human settlement by varying indigenous cultures over thousands of years.[12] In the first millennium A.D. people of the Mississippian culture were prominent; the culture influenced a network of communities throughout the Mississippi River Valley and its tributaries. The hierarchical societies built complexes with large earthwork ceremonial and burial mounds as expressions of their sophisticated culture.[13] The Chickasaw people, believed to be their descendants, later inhabited this site and a large territory in the Southeast.[14] French explorers led by René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle[15] and Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto[16][17] encountered the historic Chickasaw in this area in the 16th century. J. D. L. Holmes, writing in Hudson's Four Centuries of Southern Indians (2007), notes that this site was a third strategic point in the late 18th century through which European powers could control United States encroachment beyond the Appalachians and their interference with Indian matters—after Fort Nogales (present-day Vicksburg) and Fort Confederación (present-day Epes, Alabama): "Chickasaw Bluffs, located on the Mississippi River at the present-day location of Memphis. Spain and the United States vied for control of this site, which was a favorite of the Chickasaws."[18]: 71  In 1795 the Spanish Governor-General of Louisiana, Francisco Luis Héctor de Carondelet, sent his lieutenant governor, Manuel Gayoso de Lemos, to negotiate and secure consent from the local Chickasaw so that a Spanish fort could be erected on the bluff; Fort San Fernando De Las Barrancas was the result.[18]: 71 [19] Holmes notes that consent was reached despite opposition from "disappointed Americans and a pro-American faction of the Chickasaws" when the "pro-Spanish faction signed the Chickasaw Bluffs Cession and Spain provided the Chickasaws with a trading post".[18]: 71  Fort San Fernando de las Barrancas remained a focal point of Spanish activity until, as Holmes summarizes: [T]he Treaty of San Lorenzo or Pinckney's Treaty of 1795 [implemented in March 1797], [had as its result that] all of the careful, diplomatic work by Spanish officials in Louisiana and West Florida, which has succeeded for a decade in controlling the Indians [e.g., the Choctaws], was undone. The United States gained the right to navigate the Mississippi River and won control over the Yazoo Strip north of the thirty-first parallel.[18]: 75, 71  The Spanish dismantled the fort, shipping its lumber and iron to their locations in Arkansas.[20] In 1796, the site became the westernmost point of the newly admitted state of Tennessee, in what was then called the Southwest United States. The area was still largely occupied and controlled by the Chickasaw nation. Captain Isaac Guion led an American force down the Ohio River to claim the land, arriving on July 20, 1797. By this time, the Spanish had departed.[21] The fort's ruins went unnoticed 20 years later when Memphis was laid out as a city, after the United States government paid the Chickasaw for land.[22] 19th century Memphis in the mid-1850s The city of Memphis was founded on May 22, 1819 (incorporated December 19, 1826), by John Overton, James Winchester and Andrew Jackson.[23][24] They named it after the ancient capital of Egypt on the Nile River.[25] The city had a high proportion of African Americans, some of whom were free people of color and others enslaved in service to whites, predominately white Protestants of British ethnicity. Many African Americans worked along the river, and even more on the outlying cotton plantations of the Delta. The city's demographics changed dramatically in the 1850s and 1860s under waves of immigration and domestic migration. Due to increased immigration since the 1840s and the Great Famine, ethnic Irish made up 9.9% of the population in 1850, but 23.2% by 1860, when the total population was 22,623.[26][27][28] Attack on Irving Block by General Forrest in 1864 Tennessee seceded from the Union in June 1861, and Memphis briefly became a Confederate stronghold. Union ironclad gunboats captured it in the naval Battle of Memphis on June 6, 1862, and the city and state were occupied by the Union Army for the duration of the war. Union Army commanders allowed the city to maintain its civil government during most of this period but excluded Confederate veterans from office. This shifted political dynamics in the city as the war went on.[29] The war years contributed to additional dramatic changes in city population. The Union Army's presence attracted many fugitive slaves who had escaped from surrounding rural plantations. So many sought protection behind Union lines that the Army set up contraband camps to accommodate them. Memphis's black population increased from 3,000 in 1860, when the total population was 22,623, to nearly 20,000 in 1865, with most settling south of the city limits.[30] Postwar years, Reconstruction and Democratic control The rapid demographic changes added to the stress of war and occupation and uncertainty about who was in charge, increasing tensions between the city's ethnic Irish policemen and black Union soldiers after the war.[29] In three days of rioting in early May 1866, the Memphis Riots erupted, in which white mobs made up of policemen, firemen, and other mostly ethnic Irish Americans attacked and killed 46 blacks, wounding 75 and injuring 100; raped several women; and destroyed nearly 100 houses while severely damaging churches and schools in South Memphis. Much of the black settlement was left in ruins. Two whites were killed in the riot.[30] Many blacks permanently fled Memphis afterward, especially as the Freedmen's Bureau continued to have difficulty in protecting them. Their population fell to about 15,000 by 1870,[29] 37.4% of the total population of 40,226. Historic aerial view of Memphis, 1870 Historian Barrington Walker suggests that the Irish rioted against blacks because of their relatively recent arrival as immigrants and the uncertain nature of their own claim to "whiteness"; they were trying to distinguish themselves from blacks in the underclass. The main fighting participants were ethnic Irish, decommissioned black Union soldiers, and newly emancipated African-American freedmen. Walker suggests that most of the mob were not in direct economic conflict with the blacks, as by then the Irish had attained better jobs, but were establishing social and political dominance over the freedmen.[28] In Memphis, unlike disturbances in some other cities, ex-Confederate veterans were generally not part of the attacks against blacks. The outrages of the riots in Memphis and a similar one in New Orleans, Louisiana in September (the latter did include Confederate veterans) resulted in Congress's passing the Reconstruction Act and the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.[30] Yellow Jack In the 1870s, a series of yellow fever epidemics devastated Memphis, with the disease carried by river passengers traveling by ships along the waterways. During the Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1878, more than 5,000 people were listed in the official register of deaths between July 26 and November 27. The vast majority died of yellow fever, making the epidemic in the city of 40,000 one of the most traumatic and severe in urban U.S. history. Within four days of the Memphis Board of Health's declaration of a yellow fever outbreak, 20,000 residents fled the city. The ensuing panic left the poverty-stricken, the working classes, and the African-American community at most risk from the epidemic. Those who remained relied on volunteers from religious and physician organizations to tend to the sick. By the end of the year, more than 5,000 were confirmed dead in Memphis. The New Orleans health board listed "not less than 4,600" dead. The Mississippi Valley recorded 120,000 cases of yellow fever, with 20,000 deaths. The $15 million in losses caused by the epidemic bankrupted Memphis, and as a result its charter was revoked by the state legislature. Woodcut representing the waterfront of Memphis, c. 1879 By 1870, Memphis's population of 40,000 was almost double that of Nashville and Atlanta, and it was the second-largest city in the South after New Orleans.[31] Its population continued to grow after 1870, even when the Panic of 1873 hit the US hard, particularly in the South. The Panic of 1873 resulted in expanding Memphis's underclasses amid the poverty and hardship it wrought, giving further credence to Memphis as a rough, shiftless city. Leading up to the outbreak in 1878, it had suffered two yellow fever epidemics, cholera, and malaria, giving it a reputation as sickly and filthy. It was unheard of for a city with a population as large as Memphis's not to have any waterworks; the city still relied for supplies entirely on collecting water from the river and rain cisterns, and had no way to remove sewage.[31] The combination of a swelling population, especially of lower and working classes, and abysmal health and sanitary conditions made Memphis ripe for a serious epidemic. Kate Bionda, an owner of an Italian "snack house", died of the fever on August 13.[31] Hers was officially reported by the Board of Health, on August 14, as the first case of yellow fever in the city.[31] A massive panic ensued. The same trains and steamboats that had brought thousands into Memphis, in five days carried away more than 25,000 refugees, more than half of the city's population.[31] On August 23, the Board of Health finally declared a yellow fever epidemic in Memphis, and the city collapsed, hemorrhaging its population. In July of that year, the city had a population of 47,000; by September, 19,000 remained, and 17,000 of them had yellow fever.[31] The only people left in the city were the lower classes, such as German and Irish immigrant workers and African Americans. None had the means to flee the city, as did the middle and upper class whites of Memphis, and thus they were subjected to a city of death. Immediately following the Board of Health's declaration, a Citizen's Relief Committee was formed by Charles G. Fisher. It organized the city into refugee camps. The committee's main priority was to separate the poor from the city and isolate them in refugee camps.[31] The Howard Association, formed specifically for yellow fever epidemics in New Orleans and Memphis, organized nurses and doctors in Memphis and throughout the country.[32] They stayed at the Peabody Hotel, the only hotel to keep its doors open during the epidemic. From there they were assigned to their respective districts. Physicians of the epidemic reported seeing as many as 100 to 150 patients daily.[31] The Catholic sisters of St. Mary's Hospital played an important role during the epidemic in caring for the lower classes. Already supporting a girls' school and church orphanage, the sisters of St. Mary's also sought to provide care for the Canfield Asylum, a home for black children. Each day, they alternated caring for the orphans at St. Mary's, delivering children to the Canfield Asylum, and taking soup and medicine on house calls to patients.[31] Between September 9 and October 4, Sister Constance and three other nuns fell victim to the epidemic and died. They later became known as the Martyrs of Memphis.[33] At long last, on October 28, a killing frost struck. The city sent out word to Memphians scattered all over the country to come home. Though yellow fever cases were recorded in the pages of Elmwood Cemetery's burial record as late as February 29, 1874, the epidemic seemed quieted.[31] The Board of Health declared the epidemic at an end after it had caused over 20,000 deaths and financial losses of nearly $200 million.[34] On November 27, a general citizen's meeting was called at the Greenlaw Opera House to offer thanks to those who had stayed behind to serve, of whom many had died. Over the next year property tax revenues collapsed, and the city could not make payments on its municipal debts. As a result, Memphis temporarily lost its city charter and was reclassified by the state legislature as a Taxing District from 1878 to 1893.[32] But a new era of sanitation was developed in the city, a new municipal government in 1879 helped form the first regional health organization, and during the 1880s Memphis led the nation in sanitary reform and improvements.[34] Perhaps the most significant effect of the yellow fever on Memphis was in demographic changes. Nearly all of Memphis's upper and middle classes vanished, depriving the city of its general leadership and class structure that dictated everyday life, similar to that in other large Southern cities, such as New Orleans, Charleston, South Carolina, and Atlanta, Georgia. In Memphis, the poorer whites and blacks fundamentally made up the city and played the greatest role in rebuilding it. The epidemic had resulted in Memphis being a less cosmopolitan place, with an economy that served the cotton trade and a population drawn increasingly from poor white and black Southerners.[35] Late 19th century The 1890 election was strongly contested, resulting in white opponents of the D. P. Hadden faction working to deprive them of votes by disenfranchising blacks. The state had enacted several laws, including the requirement of poll taxes, that made it more difficult for them to register to vote and served to disenfranchise many blacks. Although political party factions in the future sometimes paid poll taxes to enable blacks to vote, African Americans lost their last positions on the city council in this election and were forced out of the police force. (They did not recover the ability to exercise the franchise until after passage of civil rights legislation in the mid-1960s.) Historian L. B. Wrenn suggests the heightened political hostility of the Democratic contest and related social tensions contributed to a white mob lynching three black grocers in Memphis in 1892.[36]: 124, 131  Journalist Ida B. Wells of Memphis investigated the lynchings, as one of the men killed was a friend of hers. She demonstrated that these and other lynchings were more often due to economic and social competition than any criminal offenses by black men. Her findings were considered so controversial and aroused so much anger that she was forced to move away from the city. But she continued to investigate and publish the abuses of lynching.[36]: 131  Businessmen were eager to increase city population after the losses of 1878–79, and supported annexation of new areas; this measure was passed in 1890 before the census. The annexation measure was finally approved by the state legislature through a compromise achieved with real estate magnates, and the area annexed was slightly smaller than first proposed.[36]: 126  In 1893 the city was rechartered with home rule, which restored its ability to enact taxes. The state legislature established a cap rate.[37] Although commission government was retained and enlarged to five commissioners, Democratic politicians regained control from the business elite. The commission form of government was believed effective in getting things done, but because all positions were elected at-large, requiring them to gain majority votes, this practice reduced representation by candidates representing significant minority political interests.[36]: 126f  20th century Cotton merchants on Union Avenue (1937) In terms of its economy, Memphis developed as the world's largest spot cotton market and the world's largest hardwood lumber market, both commodity products of the Mississippi Delta. Into the 1950s, it was also the world's largest mule market. These animals were still used extensively for agriculture.[38] Attracting workers from Southern rural areas as well as new European immigrants, from 1900 to 1950 the city increased nearly fourfold in population, from 102,350 to 396,000 residents.[39] Racist violence continued unabated. According to John R. Steelman, there were four lynchings between 1900 and the time he wrote his PhD dissertation on "mob action in the South" in 1928. The last one he recorded was the lynching of Thomas Williams.[40] The Ford Motor Company built cars in Memphis from 1913 until 1958/59.[41] A Firestone Tire and Rubber Company plant made tires in North Memphis from 1936 to 1982. The plant made 100 million tires.[42] A Tennessee Powder Company built an explosives powder plant to make TNT and gunpowder on a 6,000-acre site in Millington in 1940. The plant was built to make smokeless gunpowder for the British forces in World War II. In May 1941, DuPont (1802–2017) took over the plant, changed the name to the Chickasaw Ordnance Works, and made powder for the US Army. There were 8,000 employees. The plant was dismantled after the war in 1946.[43][44] From the 1910s to the 1950s, Memphis was a place of machine politics under the direction of E. H. "Boss" Crump. He gained a state law in 1911 to establish a small commission to manage the city. The city retained a form of commission government until 1967 and patronage flourished under Crump. Per the publisher's summary of L.B. Wrenn's study of the period, "This centralization of political power in a small commission aided the efficient transaction of municipal business, but the public policies that resulted from it tended to benefit upper-class Memphians while neglecting the less affluent residents and neighborhoods."[36][page needed][45] The city installed a revolutionary sewer system and upgraded sanitation and drainage to prevent another epidemic. Pure water from an artesian well was discovered in the 1880s, securing the city's water supply. The commissioners developed an extensive network of parks and public works as part of the national City Beautiful movement, but did not encourage heavy industry, which might have provided substantial employment for the working-class population. The lack of representation in city government resulted in the poor and minorities being underrepresented. The majority controlled the election of all the at-large positions.[36][page needed] Memphis did not become a home rule city until 1963, although the state legislature had amended the constitution in 1953 to provide home rule for cities and counties. Before that, the city had to get state bills approved in order to change its charter and for other policies and programs. Since 1963, it can change the charter by popular approval of the electorate.[36]: 194  During the 1960s, the city was at the center of the Civil Rights Movement, as its large African-American population had been affected by state segregation practices and disenfranchisement in the early 20th century. African-American residents drew from the civil rights movement to improve their lives. In 1968, the Memphis sanitation strike began for living wages and better working conditions; the workers were overwhelmingly African American. They marched to gain public awareness and support for their plight: the danger of their work, and the struggles to support families with their low pay. Their drive for better pay had been met with resistance by the city government. Martin Luther King Jr. of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, known for his leadership in the non-violent movement, came to lend his support to the workers' cause. King stayed at the Lorraine Motel in the city, and was assassinated by James Earl Ray on April 4, 1968, the day after giving his I've Been to the Mountaintop speech at the Mason Temple. After learning of King's murder, many African Americans in the city rioted, looting and destroying businesses and other facilities, some by arson. The governor ordered Tennessee National Guardsmen into the city within hours, where small, roving bands of rioters continued to be active.[46] Fearing the violence, more of the middle-class began to leave the city for the suburbs. In 1970, the Census Bureau reported Memphis's population as 60.8% white and 38.9% black.[47] Suburbanization was attracting wealthier residents to newer housing outside the city. After the riots and court-ordered busing in 1973 to achieve desegregation of public schools, "about 40,000 of the system's 71,000 white students abandon[ed] the system in four years."[48] Today, the city has a majority African-American population. Memphis is well known for its cultural contributions to the identity of the American South. Many renowned musicians grew up in and around Memphis and moved to Chicago and other areas from the Mississippi Delta, carrying their music with them to influence other cities and listeners over radio airwaves.[49][full citation needed] Former and current Memphis residents include musicians Elvis Presley, Jerry Lee Lewis, Muddy Waters, Carl Perkins, Johnny Cash, Robert Johnson, W. C. Handy, Bobby Whitlock, B.B. King, Howlin' Wolf, Isaac Hayes, Booker T. Jones, Eric Gales, Al Green, Alex Chilton, Justin Timberlake, Three 6 Mafia, the Sylvers, Jay Reatard, Zach Myers, and Aretha Franklin. The International Harvester Company manufacturing plant opened in 1947 and closed in 1985. The plant made cotton harvesting equipment and Farm Tillage equipment. It once had 1,000 employees.[50][51] CBI Nuclear Company operated in Memphis for more than 20 years. Chicago Bridge & Iron Company, CBI and General Electric built large nuclear reactor pressure vessels and other large structures in Memphis.[52][53][54] On December 23, 1988, a tanker truck hauling liquefied propane crashed at the I-40/I-240 interchange in Midtown and exploded, starting multiple vehicle and structural fires. Nine people were killed and ten were injured. It was one of Tennessee's deadliest motor vehicle accidents and eventually led to the reconstruction of the interchange where it occurred.[55][56] 21st century to present Schering-Plough Corporation became defunct in 2009. It is now a subsidiary of Merck & Co. Abe Plough founded Plough, Incorporated in Memphis in 1908. In 1971, the Schering Corporation merged with Plough, Inc.[57] In 2020, in the wake of the murder of George Floyd in Minneapolis, protests were held in Memphis. After confrontations with police, Mayor Jim Strickland declared a curfew, lasting from June 1 to 8.[58][59] On June 2, 2021, the remains of Confederate General and Ku Klux Klan leader Nathan Bedford Forrest were removed from a Memphis park.[60] Geography Main article: Geography of Memphis, Tennessee See also: List of neighborhoods in Memphis, Tennessee According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 324.0 square miles (839.2 km2), of which 315.1 square miles (816.0 km2) is land and 9.0 square miles (23.2 km2), or 2.76%, is water.[61] Cityscape The Downtown skyline from the lookout at the Pyramid facing southwest Downtown from the Harahan Bridge Downtown Memphis rises from a bluff along the Mississippi River. The city and metro area spread out through suburbanization, and encompass southwest Tennessee, northern Mississippi and eastern Arkansas. Several large parks were founded in the city in the early 20th century, notably Overton Park in Midtown and the 4,500-acre (18 km2) Shelby Farms. The city is a national transportation hub and Mississippi River crossing for Interstate 40, (east-west), Interstate 55 (north-south), barge traffic, Memphis International Airport (FedEx's "SuperHub" facility) and numerous freight railroads that serve the city. Riverfront The American Queen docked at Beale Street Landing along the riverfront The Memphis Riverfront stretches along the Mississippi River from the Meeman-Shelby Forest State Park in the north, to the T. O. Fuller State Park in the south. The River Walk is a park system that connects downtown Memphis from Mississippi River Greenbelt Park in the north, to Tom Lee Park in the south. De-annexation In recent years the city has decided to de-annex some of its territory. It is going through a three-phase process to de-annex five areas within the city limits that will return to being part of unincorporated Shelby County.[62] The first phase of de-annexation occurred on January 1, 2020, when the Eads and River Bottoms areas of the city returned to county jurisdiction. As a result, the Shelby County Sheriff is responsible for patrolling these former parts of Memphis.[63] It is estimated that this first phase of the de-annexation process will reduce the city's size by 5% and its population by 0.03%.[62] The next two phases will have a much more significant impact. Aquifer Shelby County is located over four natural aquifers, one of which is recognized as the "Memphis Sand Aquifer" or simply as the "Memphis Aquifer". Located 350 to 1,100 feet (110 to 340 m) underground, this artesian water source is considered soft and estimated by Memphis Light, Gas and Water to contain more than 100 trillion US gallons (380 km3) of water.[64] Climate Memphis has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa, Trewartha Cf), with four distinct seasons, and is located in USDA Plant Hardiness Zone 8a in downtown, cooling to 7b for much of the surrounding region.[65] Winter weather comes alternately from the upper Great Plains and the Gulf of Mexico, which can lead to drastic swings in temperature. Summer weather may come from Texas (very hot and humid) or the Gulf (hot and very humid). July has a daily average temperature of 82.8 °F (28.2 °C), with high levels of humidity due to moisture encroaching from the Gulf of Mexico. Afternoon and evening thunderstorms are frequent during summer, but usually brief, lasting no longer than an hour. Early autumn is pleasantly drier and mild, but can be hot until late October. Late autumn is rainy and cooler; precipitation peaks again in November and December. Winters are mild to chilly, with a January daily average temperature of 42.1 °F (5.6 °C). Snow occurs sporadically in winter, with an average seasonal snowfall of 2.7 inches (6.9 cm). Ice storms and freezing rain pose greater danger, as they can often pull tree limbs down on power lines and make driving hazardous. Severe thunderstorms can occur at any time of the year though mainly during the spring months. Large hail, strong winds, flooding and frequent lightning can accompany these storms. Some storms spawn tornadoes. The lowest temperature ever recorded in Memphis was −13 °F (−25 °C) on December 24, 1963,[66][67] and the highest temperature ever was 108 °F (42 °C) on July 13, 1980.[68] Over the course of a year, there is an average of 4.4 days of highs below freezing, 6.9 nights of lows below 20 °F (−7 °C), 43 nights of lows below freezing, 64 days of highs above 90 °F (32 °C), and 2.1 days of highs above 100 °F (38 °C). Memphis temperatures dropped to -4 F during the 1985 North American cold wave and during the December 1989 United States cold wave. Annual precipitation is high (54.94 inches [1,400 mm]) and relatively evenly distributed throughout the year. Average monthly rainfall is especially high in March through May, and December, while August and September are relatively drier. Climate data for Memphis (Memphis Int'l), 1991−2020 normals,[69] extremes 1872−present[70] Demographics Historical population Census Pop. %± 1850 8,841 — 1860 22,623 155.9% 1870 40,226 77.8% 1880 33,592 −16.5% 1890 64,495 92.0% 1900 102,320 58.6% 1910 131,105 28.1% 1920 162,351 23.8% 1930 253,143 55.9% 1940 292,942 15.7% 1950 396,000 35.2% 1960 497,524 25.6% 1970 623,988 25.4% 1980 646,174 3.6% 1990 610,337 −5.5% 2000 650,100 6.5% 2010 646,889 −0.5% 2020 633,104 −2.1% U.S. Decennial Census[76] 2010–2020[2] Racial composition 2019[77] 2010[78] 1990[47] 1970[47] 1950[47] White 29.2% 29.4% 44.0% 60.8% 62.8%  —Non-Hispanic 25.7% 27.5% 43.7% 60.5%[79] n/a Black or African American 64.1% 63.3% 54.8% 38.9% 37.2% Hispanic or Latino (of any race) 7.2% 6.5% 0.7% 0.4%[79] n/a Asian 1.7% 1.6% 0.8% 0.2% – For historical population data, see: History of Memphis, Tennessee. According to the 2020 United States Census, the racial composition of the city of Memphis was: Black or African American (non-Hispanic): 387,964 (61.28%) White (non-Hispanic): 151,581 (23.94%) Hispanic or Latino (of any race): 62,167 (9.82%) Asian: 11,503 (1.82%) Native American: 1,007 (0.16%) Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander: 141 (0.02%) Some other race: 2,425 (0.38%) Two or more races: 16,316 (2.58%) Map of racial distribution in Memphis, 2010 U.S. Census. Each dot is 25 people: ⬤ White ⬤ Black ⬤ Asian ⬤ Hispanic ⬤ Other As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 652,078 people and 245,836 households in the city.[80] The population density was 2,327.4 people per sq mi (898.6/km2). There were 271,552 housing units at an average density of 972.2 per square mile (375.4/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 63.33% African American, 29.39% White, 1.46% Asian American, 1.57% Native American, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 1.45% from other races, and 1.04% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6.49% of the population. The median income for a household in the city was $32,285, and the median income for a family was $37,767. Males had a median income of $31,236 versus $25,183 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,838. About 17.2% of families and 20.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 30.1% of those under age 18, and 15.4% of those age 65 or over. In 2011, the U.S. Census Bureau ranked the Memphis area as the poorest large metro area in the country.[81] Dr. Jeff Wallace of the University of Memphis noted that the problem was related to decades of segregation in government and schools. He said that it was a low-cost job market, but other places in the world could offer cheaper labor, and the workforce was undereducated for today's challenges.[81] The Memphis Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA), the 42nd largest in the United States, has a 2010 population of 1,316,100 and includes the Tennessee counties of Shelby, Tipton and Fayette; as well as the northern Mississippi counties of DeSoto, Marshall, Tate, and Tunica; and Crittenden County, Arkansas, all part of the Mississippi Delta. The total metropolitan area has a higher proportion of whites and a higher per capita income than the population in the city. The 2010 census shows that the Memphis metro area is close to a majority-minority population: the white population is 47.9 percent of the eight-county area's 1,316,100 residents. The non-Hispanic white population, a designation frequently used in census reports, was 46.2 percent of the total. The African American percentage was 45.7. For several decades, the Memphis metro area has had the highest percentage of black population among the nation's large metropolitan areas. The area has seemed on a path to become the nation's first metro area of one million or more with a majority black population.[82] In a reverse trend of the Great Migration, numerous African Americans and other minorities have moved into DeSoto County, and blacks have followed suburban trends, moving into the suburbs of Shelby County.[82] Religion Asian-American tombstones in Elmwood Cemetery An 1870 map of Memphis shows religious buildings of the Baptist, Catholic, Episcopal, Methodist, Presbyterian, Congregational, and other Christian denominations, and a Jewish congregation.[83] In 2009, places of worship exist for Christians, Jews, Hindus, Buddhists, and Muslims. The international headquarters of the Church of God in Christ, the largest Pentecostal denomination in the United States, is located in Memphis. Its Mason Temple was named after the denomination's founder, Charles Harrison Mason. This auditorium is where Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. gave his noted "I've Been to the Mountaintop" speech in April 1968, the night before he was assassinated at his motel. The National Civil Rights Museum, located in Memphis at the Lorraine Motel and other buildings, has an annual ceremony at Mason's Temple of Deliverance where it honors persons with Freedom Awards. Bellevue Baptist Church is a Southern Baptist megachurch in Memphis that was founded in 1903. Its current membership is around 30,000.[84] For many years, it was led by Adrian Rogers, a three-term president of the Southern Baptist Convention. Other notable and/or large churches in Memphis include Second Presbyterian Church (EPC), Highpoint Church[85] (SBC), Hope Presbyterian Church (EPC), Evergreen Presbyterian Church (PCUSA), Colonial Park United Methodist Church, Christ United Methodist Church, Idlewild Presbyterian Church (PCUSA), GraceLife Pentecostal Church (UPCI), First Baptist Broad, Temple of Deliverance, Calvary Episcopal Church, the Church of the River (First Unitarian Church of Memphis), First Congregational Church (UCC) and Annunciation Greek Orthodox Church. Memphis is home to two cathedrals. The Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Memphis, and St. Mary's Episcopal Cathedral is the seat of the Episcopal Diocese of West Tennessee. Memphis is home to Temple Israel, a Reform synagogue that has approximately 7,000 members, making it one of the largest Reform synagogues in the country. Baron Hirsch Synagogue is the largest Orthodox shul in the United States.[86] Jewish residents were part of the city before the Civil War, but more Jewish immigrants came from Eastern Europe in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Memphis is home to an estimated 10,000 to 15,000 Muslims of various cultures and ethnicities.[87] A number of seminaries are located in Memphis and the metropolitan area. Memphis is home to Memphis Theological Seminary and Harding School of Theology. Suburban Cordova is home to Mid-America Baptist Theological Seminary. Crime Main article: Crime in Memphis, Tennessee A Memphis Police Department vehicle In the 21st century, Memphis has struggled to reduce crime. In 2007, it ranked as the second-most dangerous city by the Morgan Quitno rankings.[88] In 2004, violent crime in Memphis reached a decade record low. However, that trend changed and in 2005, Memphis was ranked the fourth-most dangerous city with a population of 500,000 or higher in the U.S.[89] Crime increased again in the first half of 2006. By 2014, Memphis crime had substantially decreased, bringing the city's ranking up to eleventh in violent crime.[90] Nationally, cities follow similar trends, and crime numbers tend to be cyclical. Nationally, other moderate-sized cities were also suffering large rises in crime, although crime in the largest cities continued to decrease or increased much less.[91][92][better source needed] In the first half of 2006, robbery of businesses increased 52.5%, robbery of individuals increased 28.5%, and homicides increased 18% over the same period of 2005. The Memphis Police Department responded with the initiation of Operation Blue C.R.U.S.H. (Crime Reduction Using Statistical History), which targets crime hotspots and repeat offenders.[93] Memphis ended 2005 with 154 murders, and 2006 ended with 160; in 2007 there were 164 murders, 2008 had 138, and 2009 had 132. Violent crimes dropped from 12,939 in 2008 to 12,047. Robbery dropped from 4,788 in 2008 to 4,137 in 2009. Aggravated assault dropped 53,870 in 2008 to 47,158 in 2009 (FBI's UCR). In 2006 and 2007, the Memphis metropolitan area ranked second-most dangerous in the nation among cities with a population over 500,000. In 2006, the Memphis metropolitan area ranked number one in violent crimes for major cities around the U.S., according to the FBI's annual crime rankings, whereas it had ranked second in 2005.[94] Since 2006, serious crime has dropped in Memphis. Between 2006 and 2008, the crime rate fell by 16%, while the first half of 2009 saw a reduction in serious crime of more than 10% from 2008. The Memphis Police Department's use of the FBI National Incident-Based Reporting System, a more detailed method of reporting crimes than what is used in many other major cities, has been cited as a reason for Memphis's frequent appearance on lists of most dangerous U.S. cities.[95] Homicide statistics released by the city in more recent years show another dramatic rise in murders in Memphis. There were 140 homicides in the city in 2014 and 161 in 2015.[96][97] In 2016, police officials recorded 228 murders, a 63% increase since 2014.[98] According to Michael Rallings, the director of the Memphis Police Department, investigations determined that one third of the murder victims in 2016 had been involved in gang activity.[98] Economy Main article: Economy of Memphis, Tennessee Memphis products treemap, 2020 The city's central geographic location has aided its business development. On the Mississippi River and intersected by five major freight railroads and two Interstate Highways, I-40 and I-55, Memphis is well positioned for commerce in the transportation and shipping industry. Its access by water was key to its initial development, with steamboats plying the Mississippi river. Railroad construction strengthened its connection to other markets to the east and west. Since the second half of the 20th century, highways and interstates have played major roles as transportation corridors. A third interstate, I-69, is under construction, and a fourth, I-22, has recently been designated from the former High Priority Corridor X. River barges are unloaded onto trucks and trains. The city is home to Memphis International Airport, the world's busiest cargo airport, surpassing Hong Kong International Airport in 2021. Memphis serves as a primary hub for FedEx Express shipping. As of 2014, Memphis was the home of three Fortune 500 companies: FedEx (no. 63), International Paper (no. 107), and AutoZone (no. 306).[99] Other major corporations based in Memphis include Allenberg Cotton, American Residential Services (also known as ARS/Rescue Rooter); Baker, Donelson, Bearman, Caldwell & Berkowitz; Cargill Cotton, City Gear, First Horizon National Corporation, Fred's, GTx, Lenny's Sub Shop, Mid-America Apartments, Perkins Restaurant and Bakery, ServiceMaster, True Temper Sports, Varsity Brands, and Verso Paper. Corporations with major operations based in Memphis include Gibson guitars (based in Nashville), and Smith & Nephew. The Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis also has a branch in Memphis. The entertainment and film industries have discovered Memphis in recent years. Several major motion pictures, most of which were recruited and assisted by the Memphis & Shelby County Film and Television Commission,[100] have been filmed in Memphis, including Making the Grade (1984), Elvis and Me (1988), Great Balls of Fire! (1988), Heart of Dixie (1989), Mystery Train (1989), The Silence of the Lambs (1991), Trespass (1992), The Gun in Betty Lou's Handbag (1992), The Firm (1993), The Delta (1996), The People Vs. Larry Flynt (1996), The Rainmaker (1997), Cast Away (2000), 21 Grams (2002), A Painted House (2002), Hustle & Flow (2005), Forty Shades of Blue (2005), Walk the Line (2005), Black Snake Moan (2007), Nothing But the Truth (2008), Soul Men (2008), and The Grace Card (2011). The Blind Side (2009) was set in Memphis but filmed in Atlanta. The 1992 television movie Memphis, starring Memphis native Cybill Shepherd, who also served as executive producer and writer, was also filmed in Memphis. Arts and culture Main article: Culture of Memphis, Tennessee Cultural events One of the largest celebrations of the city is Memphis in May. The month-long series of events promotes Memphis's heritage and outreach of its people far beyond the city's borders. The four main events are the Beale Street Music Festival, International Week, The World Championship Barbecue Cooking Contest, and the Great River Run. The World Championship Barbecue Cooking Contest is the largest pork barbecue-cooking contest in the world. In April, downtown Memphis celebrates "Africa in April Cultural Awareness Festival", or simply Africa in April. The festival was designed to celebrate the arts, history, culture, and diversity of the African diaspora. Africa in April is a three-day festival with vendors' markets, fashion showcases, blues showcases, and an international diversity parade.[101] During late May-early June, Memphis is home to the Memphis Italian Festival at Marquette Park. The 2019 festival will be its 30th and has hosted musical acts, local artisans, and Italian cooking competitions. It also presents chef demonstrations, the Coors Light Competitive Bocce Tournament, the Galtelli Cup Recreational Bocce Tournament, a volleyball tournament, and pizza tossing demonstrations. This festival was started by Holy Rosary School and Parish and began inside the School parking lot in 1989. The Memphis Italian Festival is run almost completely by former and current Holy Rosary School and Church members and begins with a 5K run each year. Carnival Memphis, formerly known as the Memphis Cotton Carnival, is an annual series of parties and festivities in June that salutes various aspects of Memphis and its industries. An annual King and Queen of Carnival are secretly selected to reign over Carnival activities. From 1935 to 1982, the African-American community staged the Cotton Makers Jubilee; it has merged with Carnival Memphis.[102] A market and arts festival, the Cooper-Young Festival,[103] is held annually in September in the Cooper-Young district of Midtown Memphis. The event draws artists from all over North America and includes local music, art sales, contests, and displays. Memphis sponsors several film festivals: the Indie Memphis Film Festival, Outflix, and the Memphis International Film and Music Festival. The Indie Memphis Film Festival is in its 14th year and was held April 27–28, 2013.[104] Recognized by MovieMaker Magazine as one of 25 "Coolest Film Festivals" (2009) and one of 25 "Festivals Worth the Entry Fee" (2011), Indie Memphis offers Memphis year-round independent film programming, including the Global Lens international film series, IM Student Shorts student films, and an outdoor concert film series at the historic Levitt Shell. The Outflix Film Festival, also in its 15th year, was held September 7–13, 2013. Outflix features a full week of LGBT cinema, including short films, features, and documentaries. The Memphis International Film and Music Festival is held in April; it is in its 11th year and takes place at Malco's Ridgeway Four. Mid-South Pride is Tennessee's second-largest LGBT pride event.[105][106] On the weekend before Thanksgiving, the Memphis International Jazz Festival is held in the South Main Historic Arts District in Downtown Memphis. This festival promotes the important role Memphis has played in shaping Jazz nationally and internationally. Acts such as George Coleman, Herman Green, Kirk Whalum and Marvin Stamm all come out of the rich musical heritage in Memphis. Formerly titled the W. C. Handy Awards, the International Blues Awards are presented by the Blues Foundation (headquartered in Memphis) for Blues music achievement. Weeklong playing competitions are held, as well as an awards banquet including a night of performance and celebration. Music Memphis is the home of founders and pioneers of various American music genres, including Memphis soul, Memphis blues, gospel, rock n' roll, rockabilly, Memphis rap, Buck, crunk, and "sharecropper" country music (in contrast to the "rhinestone" country sound historically associated with Nashville). Many musicians, including Aretha Franklin, Jerry Lee Lewis, Johnny Cash, Elvis Presley, Carl Perkins, Roy Orbison, Booker T. & the M.G.'s, Otis Redding, Isaac Hayes, Shawn Lane, Al Green, Bobby Whitlock, Rance Allen, Percy Sledge, Solomon Burke, William Bell, Sam & Dave and B.B. King, got their start in Memphis in the 1950s and 1960s. Beale Street is a national historical landmark, and shows the impact Memphis has had on American blues, particularly after World War II as electric guitars took precedence over the original acoustic sound from the Mississippi Delta. Sam Phillips's Sun Studio still stands, and is open for tours. Elvis, Johnny Cash, Jerry Lee Lewis, Carl Perkins and Roy Orbison all made their first recordings there, and were "discovered" by Phillips. Many great blues artists recorded there, such as W. C. Handy, the "Father of the Blues." Stax Records created a classic 1960s soul music sound, much grittier and horn-based than the better-known Motown from Detroit. Booker T. and the M.G.s were the label's backing band for most of the classic hits that came from Stax, by Sam & Dave, Otis Redding, Wilson Pickett, and many more. The sound was revisited in the 1980s in the Blues Brothers movie, in which many of the musicians starred as themselves. Memphis is also noted for its influence on the power pop musical genre in the 1970s. Notable bands and musicians include Big Star, Chris Bell, Alex Chilton, Tommy Hoehn, The Scruffs, and Prix.[107][108] Several notable singers are from the Memphis area, including Justin Timberlake, K. Michelle, Kirk Whalum, Three 6 Mafia, Ruth Welting, Kid Memphis, Kallen Esperian, and Andrew VanWyngarden. The Metropolitan Opera of New York had its first tour in Memphis in 1906; in the 1990s it decided to tour only larger cities. Metropolitan Opera performances are now broadcast in HD at local movie theaters across the country. Cuisine Main article: Memphis-style barbecue Visual art In addition to the Brooks Museum and Dixon Gallery and Gardens, Memphis plays host to two burgeoning visual art areas, one city-sanctioned, and the other organically formed. The South Main Arts District is an arts neighborhood in south downtown. Over the past 20 years, the area has morphed from a derelict brothel and juke joint neighborhood to a gentrified, well-lit area sponsoring "Trolley Night", when arts patrons stroll down the street to see fire spinners, DJs playing in front of clubs, specialty shops and galleries.[109][110] Another developing arts district in Memphis is Broad Avenue. This east–west avenue is undergoing neighborhood revitalization from the influx of craft and visual artists taking up residence and studios in the area.[111][112] An art professor from Rhodes College holds small openings on the first floor of his home for local students and professional artists. Odessa, another art space on Broad Avenue, hosts student art shows and local electronic music. Other gallery spaces spring up for semi-annual artwalks.[113][114] Memphis also has non-commercial visual arts organizations and spaces, including local painter Pinkney Herbert's Marshall Arts gallery, on Marshall Avenue near Sun Studios, another arts neighborhood characterized by affordable rent.[115] Literature Well-known writers from Memphis include Shelby Foote, the noted Civil War historian. Novelist John Grisham grew up in nearby DeSoto County, Mississippi, and sets many of his books in Memphis. Many works of fiction and literature are set in Memphis. These include The Reivers by William Faulkner (1962), September, September by Shelby Foote (1977); Peter Taylor's The Old Forest and Other Stories (1985), and his Pulitzer Prize-winning A Summons to Memphis (1986); The Firm (1991) and The Client (1993), both by John Grisham; Memphis Afternoons: a Memoir by James Conaway (1993), Plague of Dreamers by Steve Stern (1997); Cassina Gambrel Was Missing by William Watkins (1999); The Guardian by Beecher Smith (1999), "We are Billion-Year-Old Carbon" by Corey Mesler (2005), The Silence of the Lambs by Thomas Harris, and The Architect by James Williamson (2007). Tourism Main article: Tourism in Memphis, Tennessee Points of interest Peabody Hotel Beale Street – a significant location in the city's history, as well as in the history of the blues. Street performers play live music, and bars and clubs feature live entertainment. Graceland – The private residence of Elvis Presley Memphis Zoo – features exhibits of mammals, birds, fish, and amphibians. Peabody Hotel – known for the "Peabody Ducks" on the hotel rooftop. Sun Studio – a recording studio opened in 1950; it now also contains a museum. Orpheum Theatre – features Broadway shows, Ballet Memphis and Opera Memphis. The New Daisy Theatre – concert venue located on Beale Street. Mud Island Amphitheatre – concert venue.[116] Memphis Pyramid – location of the largest Bass Pro Shops in the world, an observation deck, restaurants, bowling alley, aquarium, and hotel.[117] Other Memphis attractions include the Liberty Bowl Memorial Stadium, FedExForum, and Mississippi riverboat day cruises. Museums and art collections National Civil Rights Museum at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis (2012) Memphis Brooks Museum of Art Mud Island Mississippi River Park Stax Museum and Satellite Record Shop National Civil Rights Museum – located in the Lorraine Motel and related buildings, where Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated. It includes a historical overview of the American civil rights movement and interpretation of historic and current issues. Memphis Brooks Museum of Art – the oldest and largest fine art museum in Tennessee;[118] the collection includes Renaissance, Baroque, Impressionist, and 20th century artists. Belz Museum of Asian and Judaic Art – contains a large collection of Asian jade art, Asian art, and Judaic art. Dixon Gallery and Gardens – focuses on French and American impressionism, and contains the Stout Collection of 18th-century German porcelain, as well as a 17-acre (6.9 ha) public garden. Children's Museum of Memphis – exhibits interactive and educational activities for children. Graceland – the home of Elvis Presley, it attracts over 600,000 visitors annually, and features two of Presley's airplanes, his automobile and motorcycle collection, and other memorabilia. Graceland is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[119] Pink Palace Museum and Planetarium – a science and historical museum; it includes the third largest planetarium in the United States and an IMAX theater. Beale Street – a public exhibit honoring Memphis musicians, singers, writers and composers. Mud Island – a park with a walking trail featuring a scale model of the Mississippi River. Mississippi River Museum – a maritime museum on Mud Island that focuses on the history of the Mississippi River. Victorian Village – a historic district featuring Victorian-era mansions, some of which are open to the public as museums. The Cotton Museum – located on the old trading floor of the Memphis Cotton Exchange. Stax Museum – the former location of Stax Records. Chucalissa Indian Village – a Walls phase mound and plaza complex operated by the University of Memphis. The village is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and is a National Historic Landmark. The Southeast Indian Heritage Festival is held there annually.[120] Burkle Estate – a historic home now used as a museum of slavery and the anti-slavery movement.[121] Cemeteries Memphis National Cemetery The Memphis National Cemetery is a United States National Cemetery located in northeastern Memphis. Historic Elmwood Cemetery is one of the oldest rural garden cemeteries in the South, and contains the Carlisle S. Page Arboretum. Memorial Park Cemetery is noted for its sculptures by Mexican artist Dionicio Rodriguez. Elvis Presley was originally buried in Forest Hill Cemetery, the resting place of his backing band's bassist, Bill Black. After an attempted grave robbing, his body was moved and reinterred at the grounds of Graceland. Sports Main article: Sports in Memphis, Tennessee This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) FedExForum during a Grizzlies game Current professional and major college teams Sports Franchise League Sport Founded Stadium (capacity) Memphis Tigers NCAA D1 Football 1920 Liberty Bowl Memorial Stadium (58,318) Memphis Grizzlies NBA Basketball 2001 FedExForum (18,100) Memphis Tigers NCAA D1 Basketball 1920 FedExForum (18,100) Memphis Redbirds TAE Baseball 1998 AutoZone Park (10,000) Memphis 901 FC USLC Soccer 2018 AutoZone Park (10,000) Memphis Hustle NBA G League Basketball 2017 Landers Center (8,400) CBU Buccaneers NCAA D2 Baseball 1966 Nadicksbernd Field (800) The Memphis Grizzlies of the National Basketball Association is the only team from one of the "big four" major sports leagues in Memphis.[122] The Memphis Redbirds of the Triple-A East are a Minor League Baseball affiliate of the St. Louis Cardinals.[123] The University of Memphis college basketball team, the Memphis Tigers, has a strong following in the city due to a history of competitive success. The Tigers have competed in three NCAA Final Fours (1973, 1985, 2008), with the latter two appearances being vacated. The current coach of the Memphis Tigers is Penny Hardaway. Memphis is home to Liberty Bowl Memorial Stadium, the site of University of Memphis football, the Liberty Bowl and the Southern Heritage Classic. The annual St. Jude Classic, a regular part of the PGA Tour, is also held in the city. Each February the city hosts the Regions Morgan Keegan Championships and the Cellular South Cup, which are men's ATP World Tour 500 series and WTA events, respectively. Memphis has a significant history in pro wrestling. Jerry "The King" Lawler and Jimmy "The Mouth of the South" Hart are among the sport's most well-known figures who came out of the city. Sputnik Monroe, a wrestler of the 1950s, like Lawler, promoted racial integration in the city. Ric Flair also noted Memphis as his birthplace. In the 1970s and early 1980s, the former WFL franchise Memphis Southmen / Memphis Grizzlies sued the NFL in an attempt to be accepted as an expansion franchise. In 1993, the Memphis Hound Dogs was a proposed NFL expansion that was passed over in favor of the Jacksonville Jaguars and Carolina Panthers. The Liberty Bowl Memorial Stadium also served as the temporary home of the former Tennessee Oilers (now the Titans) while the city of Nashville worked out stadium issues. The city is also the site of Memphis International Raceway, which held NASCAR events from 1998 to 2009, when Dover Motorsports closed it. In 2011 it reopened under different ownership. It no longer holds NASCAR races, but the Arca Menards Series returned to the track in 2020. Parks and recreation Major Memphis parks include W.C. Handy Park, Tom Lee Park, Audubon Park, Overton Park including the Old Forest Arboretum,[124] the Lichterman Nature Center (a nature learning center), the Memphis Botanic Garden,[125] and Jesse H Turner Park. Shelby Farms park, located at the eastern edge of the city, is one of the largest urban parks in the United States. Law and government Main article: Government of Memphis, Tennessee See also: List of mayors of Memphis, Tennessee Beginning in 1963, Memphis adopted a mayor-council form of government, with 13 City Council members, six elected at-large from throughout the city and seven elected from geographic districts. Following passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, civil rights activists challenged the at-large is electoral system in court because it made it more difficult for the minority to elect candidates of their choice; at-large voting favored candidates who could command a majority across the city. In 1995, the city adopted a new plan. The 13 Council positions are elected from nine geographic districts: seven are single-member districts and two elect three members each. Jim Strickland, a Democrat, is the city's mayor, elected on October 8, 2015. He is a former Memphis city councilman. Since the late 20th century, regional discussions have recurred on the concept of consolidating unincorporated Shelby County and Memphis into a metropolitan government, as Nashville-Davidson County did in 1963. Consolidation was a referendum item on the 2010 ballots in both the city of Memphis and Shelby County, under the state law for dual-voting on such measures. The referendum was controversial in both jurisdictions. Black leaders, including then-Shelby County Commissioner Joe Ford and national civil rights leader Al Sharpton, opposed the consolidation. According to the plaintiffs' expert, Marcus Pohlmann, these leaders "tried to turn that referendum into a civil rights issue, suggesting that for blacks to vote for consolidation was to give up hard-won civil rights victories of the past".[126] In October 2010 before the vote, eight Shelby County citizens had filed a lawsuit in federal court against the state and the Shelby County Elections Commission against the dual-voting requirement. Plaintiffs argued that total votes for the referendum should have been counted together, rather than as separate elections. City voters narrowly supported the measure for consolidation with 50.8% in favor; county voters overwhelmingly voted against the measure with 85% against.[127] The state argued that with the election decided, the lawsuit should be dismissed, but the federal court disagreed.[126] By late 2013, in pre-trial actions, both sides were trying to disqualify the other's experts, in discussions of whether regional voting revealed racial polarization, and whether voting on the referendum demonstrated racial bloc voting. "The experts for both sides have clashed on whether racial bloc voting is inevitable in local elections and whether that would require some kind of court remedy."[126] The defendants' expert, Todd Donovan, did not think that polarized voting as revealed for political candidates meant that "African-American voters and white voters have polarized interests when it comes to referendum choices on government administration, taxation, service provision and other policy questions."[126] He noted, "In the absence of distinct political interests that create polarized blocs of referendum voters defined by race, there is no cohesive racial minority voting interest that can be diluted by a referendum."[126] In 2014, the federal district court dismissed the lawsuit, on the grounds that the referendum would have failed when both jurisdictions' votes were counted together. (In total voting, 64% of voters opposed the consolidation.) In the last week of December 2014, the U.S. Sixth District Court of Appeals upheld that decision, ruling that, ""In this election, the referendum for consolidation did not pass and would not have passed even if there had been no dual-majority vote requirement (with the vote counts combined)."[127] Before the referendum, the decision was made by the city and county to exclude public school management and operations from the proposed consolidation. As noted below, in 2011 the Memphis city council voted to dissolve its city school board and consolidate with the Shelby County School System, without the collaboration or agreement of Shelby County.[128] The city had authority for this action under Tennessee state laws that differentiate between city and county powers. Education Main article: Education in Memphis, Tennessee Early nursing class in Memphis The city is served by Shelby County Schools. On March 8, 2011, residents voted to dissolve the charter for Memphis City Schools, effectively merging it with the Shelby County School District.[129] After issues with state law and court challenges, the merger took effect the start of the 2013–14 school year. In Shelby County, six incorporated cities voted to establish separate school systems in 2013. The Shelby County School System operates more than 200 elementary, middle, and high schools. The Memphis area is also home to many private, college-prep schools: Briarcrest Christian School (co-ed), Christian Brothers High School (boys), Evangelical Christian School (co-ed), First Assembly Christian School (co-ed), St. Mary's Episcopal School (girls), Hutchison School (girls), Lausanne Collegiate School (co-ed), Memphis University School (boys), Saint Benedict at Auburndale (co-ed), St. Agnes Academy (girls), Immaculate Conception Cathedral School (girls), and Elliston Baptist Academy (co-ed). Also included in this list is Memphis Harding Academy, a co-ed school affiliated with the Churches of Christ. Colleges and universities in the city include the University of Memphis, Rhodes College, Christian Brothers University, Memphis College of Art, LeMoyne–Owen College, Baptist College of Health Sciences, Memphis Theological Seminary, Harding School of Theology, Embry–Riddle Aeronautical University, Worldwide (Memphis campus),[130] Reformed Theological Seminary (satellite campus), William R. Moore College of Technology, Southern College of Optometry, Southwest Tennessee Community College, Tennessee Technology Center at Memphis, Visible Music College, Mid-America Baptist Theological Seminary, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center. Memphis also has campuses of several for-profit post-secondary institutions, including Concorde Career College, ITT Technical Institute, Vatterott College,[131] and University of Phoenix. Remington College[132] is a local nonprofit post-secondary institution. The University of Tennessee College of Dentistry was founded in 1878, making it the oldest dental college in the South, and the third oldest public college of dentistry in the United States.[133] The Christian Brothers High School Band is the oldest high school band in the U.S., founded in 1872.[134] Media See also: List of newspapers in Tennessee, List of radio stations in Tennessee, and List of television stations in Tennessee Newspapers Title Locale Year est. Frequency Publisher/parent company The Commercial Appeal[135] Memphis[136] 1840[137] Daily Gannett Company[138] Memphis Daily News Memphis 1886 Weekly or bi-weekly Memphis Flyer 1989 Weekly Contemporary Media, Inc. Memphis Tri-State Defender 1951[139] Best Media Properties, Inc. Television Nielsen Media Research currently defines Memphis and its surrounding metropolitan area as the 51st largest American media market.[140] Despite Memphis proper's large size, Memphis has always been a medium-sized market; the nearby suburban and rural areas are not much larger than the city itself. Major broadcast television affiliate stations in the Memphis area include, but are not limited to: Channel Call sign Network Owner Subchannels 3 WREG CBS Nexstar Newschannel 3 Anytime on 3.2, Antenna TV on 3.3 5 WMC NBC Gray Television Bounce TV on 5.2, Circle on 5.3, Grit on 5.4, WMC Plus on 5.5 10 WKNO PBS Mid South Public Communications Foundation WKNO-2 on 10.2, PBS Kids on 10.3 13 WHBQ Fox Cox Media Group Heroes & Icons on 13.2, Court TV Mystery on 13.3 23 WTWV Independent Religious Christian Worldview Broadcasting Corporation 24 WATN ABC Tegna Inc. Laff on 24.2, Cozi TV on 24.3 30 WLMT The CW MeTV on 30.2, Start TV on 30.3 34 WWTW TCT Tri-State Christian Television 40 WBUY TBN Trinity Broadcasting Network Hillsong Channel on 40.2, Smile on 40.3, Enlace on 40.4, Positiv on 40.5 50 WPXX ION Inyo Broadcast Holdings Court TV Mystery on 50.2, Court TV on 50.3, Defy TV on 50.4, TrueReal on 50.5, HSN on 50.6 Radio Terrestrial broadcast radio stations in the Memphis area include, but are not limited to: FM stations Call sign Frequency City of License[141] Owner Slogan Format[142] WQOX 88.5 FM Memphis Shelby County Schools (Grades K-12) 88.5 the Voice of SCS Urban adult contemporary WYPL 89.3 FM Memphis Public Library & Information Center Memphis Public Library Reading Radio Radio reading service WEVL 89.9 FM Southern Communication Volunteers, Inc. Volunteer, Member Supported Radio Freeform WKNO 91.1 FM Mid-South Public Communications Foundation WKNO NPR For the Mid South Public radio/Classical WYXR 91.7 FM Crosstown Radio Partnership, Inc. Freeform WMFS 92.9 FM Bartlett Audacy, Inc. ESPN Radio Sports WLFP 94.1 FM Germantown The Wolf Country WHAL 95.7 FM Hornlake, Mississippi iHeartMedia, Inc. Hallelujah Urban gospel WHRK 97.1 FM Memphis K97.1 Hip hop WXMX 98.1 FM Millington Cumulus Media The Max Rock WKIM 98.9 FM Munford The Bridge Adult contemporary WMC 99.7 FM Memphis Audacy, Inc. FM 100 Hot adult contemporary KJMS 101.1 FM Olive Branch, Mississippi iHeartMedia, Inc. V101 Urban adult contemporary KWNW 101.9 FM Crawfordsville, Arkansas Kiss-FM Top 40 WEGR 102.7 FM Arlington Rock 102.7 Classic rock WRBO 103.5 FM Como, Mississippi Cumulus Media 103.5 WBRO Urban adult contemporary WRVR 104.5 FM Memphis Audacy, Inc. The River Adult contemporary WGKX 105.9 FM Cumulus Media KIX 106 Country KXHT 107.1 FM Marion, Arkansas Flinn Broadcasting Corporation Hot Hip Hop WHBQ 107.5 FM Germantown 107.5 WHBQ Classic Hits AM stations Call sign Frequency City of License[143] Owner Format[142] WHBQ 560 AM Memphis Flinn Broadcasting Corporation Sports WREC 600 AM iHeartMedia Talk radio WCRV 640 AM Bott Radio Network Christian radio WMFS 680 AM Audacy, Inc. Sports KQPN 730 AM West Memphis, Arkansas F.W. Robbert Broadcasting WMC 790 AM Memphis Audacy, Inc. WUMY 830 AM GMF-Christian Media I, LLC. Spanish Christian KWAM 990 AM Starnes Media Group Talk WGSF 1030 AM Flinn Broadcasting Corporation Regional Mexican WDIA 1070 AM iHeartMedia Urban oldies WGUE 1180 AM Turrell, Arkansas Butron Media Corporation Regional Mexican WMPS 1210 AM Bartlett Flinn Broadcasting Corporation Adult Standards WMSO 1240 AM Southaven, Mississippi Urban oldies WLOK 1340 AM Memphis WLOK Radio Inc Urban gospel WLRM 1380 AM Millington F.W. Robbert Broadcasting Blues WOWW 1430 AM Germantown Flinn Broadcasting Corporation Classic hits WBBP 1480 AM Memphis Bountiful Blessings Urban gospel WMQM 1600 AM Lakeland F. W. Robbert Broadcasting Christian Cultural references Music Memphis is the subject of numerous pop and country songs, including "The Memphis Blues" by W. C. Handy, "Memphis, Tennessee" by Chuck Berry, "Night Train to Memphis" by Roy Acuff, "Goin' to Memphis" by Paul Revere and the Raiders, "Queen of Memphis" by Confederate Railroad, "Memphis Soul Stew" by King Curtis, "Maybe It Was Memphis" by Pam Tillis, "Graceland" by Paul Simon, "Memphis Train" by Rufus Thomas, "All the Way from Memphis" by Mott the Hoople, "Wrong Side of Memphis" by Trisha Yearwood, "Stuck Inside of Mobile with the Memphis Blues Again" by Bob Dylan, "Memphis Skyline" by Rufus Wainwright, "Sequestered in Memphis" by The Hold Steady and "Walking in Memphis" by Marc Cohn. In addition, Memphis is mentioned in scores of other songs, including "Proud Mary" by Creedence Clearwater Revival, "Honky Tonk Women" by the Rolling Stones, "Dixie Chicken" by Little Feat, "Who's Gonna Fill Their Shoes" by George Jones, "Daisy Jane" by America, "Life Is a Highway" by Tom Cochrane, "Black Velvet" by Alannah Myles, "Cities" by Talking Heads, "Crazed Country Rebel" by Hank Williams III, "Pride (In the Name of Love)" by U2, "M.E.M.P.H.I.S." by the Disco Biscuits, "New New Minglewood Blues" and "Candyman" by the Grateful Dead, "You Should Be Glad" by Widespread Panic, "Roll With Me" by 8Ball & MJG, "Someday" by Steve Earle and popularly recorded by Shawn Colvin, and many others. More than 1,000 commercial recordings of over 800 distinct songs contain "Memphis" in them. The Memphis Rock N' Soul Museum maintains an ever updated list of these on their website.[144] Film and television Many films are set in the American city including, Black Snake Moan, The Blind Side, Cast Away, Choices: The Movie, The Client, Elvis, The Firm, Forty Shades of Blue, Great Balls of Fire!, Hustle & Flow, Kill Switch, Making the Grade, Memphis Belle, Mississippi Grind, Mystery Train, N-Secure, The Rainmaker, The Silence of the Lambs, Soul Men, and Walk the Line. Many of those and other films have also been filmed in Memphis including, Black Snake Moan, Walk the Line, Hustle & Flow, Forty Shades of Blue, 21 Grams, A Painted House, American Saint, The Poor and Hungry, Cast Away, Woman's Story, The Big Muddy, The Rainmaker, Finding Graceland, The People vs. Larry Flynt, The Delta, Teenage Tupelo, A Family Thing, Without Air, The Firm, The Client, The Gun in Betty Lou's Handbag, Trespass, The Silence of the Lambs, Great Balls of Fire!, Elvis and Me, Mystery Train, Leningrad Cowboys Go America, Heart of Dixie, The Contemporary Gladiator, U2: Rattle and Hum, Making the Grade, The River Rat, The River, Hallelujah!, Elizabethtown, 3000 Miles to Graceland, A Face in the Crowd, Undefeated, Man on the Moon, Nothing But the Truth, Sore Losers, Soul Men, I Was a Zombie for the F.B.I., I'm From Hollywood, The Grace Card, This is Elvis, Cookie's Fortune, Open Five, The Open Road, In the Valley of Elah, Walk Hard, My Blueberry Nights, Savage Country, and Two-Lane Blacktop.[145] The television series Greenleaf, Memphis Beat, Quarry and Bluff City Law are set in the city. Literature Many works of fiction and literature are set in Memphis. These include The Reivers by William Faulkner (1962), September, September by Shelby Foote (1977); Peter Taylor's The Old Forest and Other Stories (1985), and his Pulitzer Prize-winning A Summons to Memphis (1986); The Firm (1991) and The Client (1993), both by John Grisham; Memphis Afternoons: a Memoir by James Conaway (1993), Plague of Dreamers by Steve Stern (1997); Cassina Gambrel Was Missing by William Watkins (1999); The Guardian by Beecher Smith (1999), "We are Billion-Year-Old Carbon" by Corey Mesler (2005), The Silence of the Lambs by Thomas Harris, and The Architect by James Williamson (2007). Infrastructure Transportation Main article: Transportation in Memphis, Tennessee Highways Interstate 40, Interstate 55, Interstate 22, Interstate 240, Interstate 269, and State Route 385 are the main expressways in the Memphis area. Interstates 40 and 55 cross the Mississippi River at Memphis from the state of Arkansas.[146] Interstate 69 is a proposed interstate that, upon completion, would connect Memphis to Canada and Mexico.[147] I-40 is a coast-to-coast freeway that connects Memphis to Nashville and on to North Carolina to the east, and Little Rock, Arkansas, Oklahoma City, and the Greater Los Angeles Area to the west. I-55 connects Memphis to St. Louis and Chicago to the north, and Jackson, Mississippi and New Orleans to the south. I-240 is the inner beltway which serves areas including Downtown, Midtown, South Memphis, Memphis International Airport, East Memphis, and North Memphis.[146] I-269 is the larger, outer interstate loop immediately serving the suburbs of Millington, Eads, Arlington, Collierville, and Hernando, Mississippi. It was completed in 2018.[148] Interstate 22 connects Memphis with Birmingham, Alabama, via northern Mississippi (including Tupelo) and northwestern Alabama. While technically not entering the city of Memphis proper, I-22 ends at I-269 in Byhalia, Mississippi, connecting it to the rest of the Memphis interstate system. Interstate 69 is proposed to follow I-55 and I-240 through the city of Memphis. Once completed, I-69 will link Memphis with Port Huron, Michigan via Indianapolis, Indiana, and Brownsville, Texas via Shreveport, Louisiana and Houston, Texas.[147] A new spur, Interstate 555, also serves the Memphis metro area connecting it to Jonesboro, Arkansas. Other important federal highways though Memphis include the east–west U.S. Route 70, U.S. Route 64, and U.S. Route 72; and the north–south U.S. Route 51 and U.S. Route 61.[146] The former is the historic highway north to Chicago via Cairo, Illinois, while the latter roughly parallels the Mississippi River for most of its course and crosses the Mississippi Delta region to the south, with the Delta also legendary for Blues music. Roadways Memphis maintains 6,800 lane-miles of city roadways. The city collaborated with Google Cloud Platform and SpringML in February 2019 to test machine learning (ML) to improve public services. A key focus is pothole identification using TensorFlow technology.[149] Public Works personnel completed 63,000 repairs, with around 7,500 of those reported by citizens to 311.[150] Railroads Three bridges over the Mississippi A large volume of railroad freight moves through Memphis, because of its two heavy-duty Mississippi River railroad crossings, which carry several major east–west railroad freight lines, and also because of the major north–south railroad lines through Memphis which connect with such major cities as Chicago, St. Louis, Indianapolis, Louisville, New Orleans, Dallas, Houston, Mobile, and Birmingham. By the early 20th century, Memphis had two major passenger railroad stations, which made the city a regional hub for trains coming from the north, east, south and west. After passenger railroad service declined heavily through the middle of the 20th century, the Memphis Union Station was demolished in 1969. The Memphis Central Station[151] was eventually renovated, and it still serves the city. The only inter-city passenger railroad service to Memphis is the daily City of New Orleans train, operated by Amtrak, which has one train northbound and one train southbound each day between Chicago and New Orleans. Railroads, common freight carriers BNSF Railway (BNSF) Canadian National Railway (CN) through subsidiary Illinois Central Railroad (IC) CSX Transportation (CSXT) Kansas City Southern Railway (KCS) Norfolk Southern Railway (NS), including subsidiaries Alabama Great Southern Railroad (AGS), Central of Georgia Railroad (CG), Cincinnati, New Orleans and Texas Pacific Railway (CNTP), Tennessee Railway (TENN), and Tennessee, Alabama and Georgia Railway (TAG) R.J. Corman Railroad/Memphis Line (RJCM) Union Pacific Railroad (UP) Railroads, passenger carriers Amtrak (AMTK) Airports FedEx aircraft at Memphis International Airport Memphis International Airport is the global "SuperHub" of FedEx Express, and has the largest cargo operations by volume of any airport worldwide, surpassing Hong Kong International Airport in 2021.[152][153] Memphis International ranks as the 41st busiest passenger airport in the US and served as a hub for Northwest Airlines (later Delta Air Lines) until September 3, 2013.[154] and had 4.39 million boarding passengers (enplanements) in 2011, an 11.9% decrease over the previous year.[155] Delta has reduced its flights at Memphis by approximately 65% since its 2008 merger with Northwest Airlines and operates an average of 30 daily flights as of December 2013, with two international destinations (Cancún – seasonally; Toronto year-round). Delta Air Lines announced the closing of its Memphis pilot and crew base in 2012. Other airlines providing passenger service are: Southwest Airlines; American Airlines; United Airlines; Allegiant; Frontier; Air Canada; and Southern Vacations Express.[156] There are also general aviation airports in the Memphis Metropolitan Area, including the Millington Regional Jetport, located at the former Naval Air Station in Millington, Tennessee. River port Main article: Port of Memphis Memphis has the second-busiest cargo port on the Mississippi River, which is also the fourth-busiest inland port in the United States.[157] The International Port of Memphis covers both the Tennessee and Arkansas sides of the Mississippi River from river mile 725 (km 1167) to mile 740 (km 1191).[158] A focal point of the river port is the industrial park on President's Island, just south of Downtown Memphis. Bridges Four railroad and highway bridges cross the Mississippi River at Memphis. In order of their opening years, these are the Frisco Bridge (1892, single-track rail), the Harahan Bridge (1916, a road-rail bridge until 1949, currently carries double-track rail), the Memphis-Arkansas Memorial Bridge (Highway, 1949; later incorporated into Interstate 55), and the Hernando de Soto Bridge (Interstate 40, 1973). A bicycle/pedestrian walkway opened along the Harahan Bridge in late 2016, utilizing the former westbound roadway.[159][160][161] Utilities Memphis's primary utility provider is the Memphis Light, Gas and Water Division (MLGW). This is the largest three-service municipal utility in the United States, providing electricity, natural gas, and pure water service to all residents of Shelby County. Prior to that, Memphis was served by two primary electric companies, which were merged into the Memphis Power Company.[162] The City of Memphis bought the private company in 1939 to form MLGW,[162][163] which was an early customer of electricity from the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA). In 1954 the Dixon-Yates contract was proposed to make more power available to the city from the TVA, but the contract was cancelled; it had been an issue for the Democrats in the 1954 Congressional elections. MLGW still buys most of its power from TVA, and the company pumps its own fresh water from the Memphis Aquifer, using more than 180 water wells. Health care St. Jude Children's Research Hospital The Memphis and Shelby County region supports numerous hospitals, including the Methodist and Baptist Memorial health systems, two of the nation's largest private hospitals. Until the 1960s and the end of segregation, most hospitals only served white patients. One of the few hospitals for African Americans in Memphis in those times was Collins Chapel Connectional Hospital, whose historic building now houses a homeless shelter.[164] Methodist Le Bonheur Healthcare, the largest healthcare provider in the Memphis region and the fourth largest employer as of 2018,[165] operates seven hospitals and several rural clinics. Methodist Healthcare operates, among others, the Le Bonheur Children's Hospital, which offers primary level 1 pediatric trauma care, as well as a nationally recognized pediatric brain tumor program. Methodist Healthcare also operates Methodist University Hospital, a 617-bed facility 1 mile southeast of Le Bonheur. Baptist Memorial Healthcare operates fifteen hospitals (three in Memphis), including Baptist Memorial Hospital, and with a merger in 2018 became the largest healthcare system in the mid-South.[166] According to Health Care Market Guide's annual studies, Mid-Southerners have named Baptist Memorial their "preferred hospital choice for quality". The St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, leading pediatric treatment and research facility focused on children's catastrophic diseases, resides in Memphis. The institution was conceived and built by entertainer Danny Thomas in 1962 as a tribute to St. Jude Thaddeus, patron saint of impossible, hopeless, and difficult causes. Memphis is also home to Regional One Healthcare,[167] which is locally referred to as "The Med". In recent years, the hospital has experienced severe funding difficulties that nearly led to a reduction or elimination of emergency room services. In July 2010, The Med received approximately $40.6 million in federal and local funding to keep the Elvis Presley Trauma Center operational. Memphis is home to Delta Medical Center of Memphis,[168] which is the only employee-owned medical facility in North America. Individual health insurance marketplace insurers are limited, with Bright Health and Cigna offering coverage in the area.[169] Notable people Main article: List of people from Memphis, Tennessee Twin towns – sister cities Memphis has three sister cities, as per Sister Cities International:[170]  – Kanifing (Gambia)  – Kaolack (Senegal)  – Shoham (Israel)
Introduction: On third and final day in New York City in Autumn 1958, after having washed dishes for a week on the ocean liner Oslofjord, we went to the Village Vanguard to hear Horace Silver’s group, and it turned out to be the same personnel as listed below, including Louis Smith on trumpet. I remember it was a great night, and that Silver was mightily impressed by two Norwegian teenagers with a bunch of 78s bought at Commodore Record Shop had come to listen to him! History: Studied at Tennessee State University, majoring in music, and toured with the Tennessee State Collegians, performing in New York at Carnegie Hall. He eventually transferred to the University of Michigan where he met many of the musicians on the fertile Detroit scene. After playing with an army band (1954-55) he taught at Booker T. Washington High School in Atlanta , and that’s where he was when he came to New York in February 1957 to record the Transition album that would become his Blue Note debut. After several recording sessions (see below), and working briefly with Horace Silver’s group, he returned to teaching, University of Michigan and Ann Arbor’s public school system (ref. New Grove Dictionary of Jazz). Recorded again in the period 1978-2003. Suffered a stroke in 2006. 3 LOUIS SMITH SOLOGRAPHY LOUIS SMITH Hackensack, NJ. Feb. 4, 1957 Louis Smith (tp), Cannonball “Buckshot La Funke” Adderley (as), Duke Jordan (p), Doug Watkins (b), Art Taylor (dm). Three titles were recorded for Transition, later transferred to Blue Note, issued as “Here Comes Louis Smith”: Tribute To Brownie Solo with (dm) 32 bars. Break to solo 3 choruses of 32 bars. (FM) Brill’s Blues Solo 8+48 bars. (S) South Side Solo 3 choruses of 32 bars. (M) Hackensack, NJ. Feb. 9, 1957 Same except Tommy Flanagan (p) replaces Duke Jordan. Three titles: Ande Solo 4 choruses of 32 bars. 2 choruses 4/4 with (dm/as). (F) Star Dust Solo 64 bars to long coda. (S) Val’s Blues Solo 9 choruses of 12 bars. 6 choruses 4/4 with (dm). (F) Here comes one of the most prominent and least remembered of the many fine trumpeters of the late fifties! Louis Smith has all the necessary qualities to make it real big. Starting out with a well chosen “… Brownie”, he plays three brilliant choruses. Then after a brief ensemble start, he goes into the slow blues with five choruses on “Brill’s …”, beautiful but with a few not quite perfect choices. Fine soloing also on the medium “… Side”. Stopping after three tunes and waiting five days with a change from one sparkling pianist to another, three more items are produced. A tough start with a very fast “Ande”, actually “Indiana”, but four choruses are played with great ease. Then a conventional ballad, “Stardust”, played as a solo feature with great sensitivity and beauty. Listening to this mature playing it is quite understandable that he got this first opportunity to record, and that later Blue Note picked it up. Closing with the very fast “Val’s …”, it is, if not before, evident why the album title was chosen; a jam session between the two would not have been an easy ride even for the legendary Clifford Brown! LOUIS SMITH Hackensack, NJ. March 30, 1958 Louis Smith (tp), Charlie Rouse (ts), Sonny Clark (p), Paul Chambers (b), Art Taylor (dm). Seven titles were recorded for Blue Note, issued as “Smithville”: tk1 Tunesmith / Bakin’ Solo 3 choruses of 32 bars. (FM) tk8 There Will Never Be Another You Solo 64 bars. (FM) There Will Never Be Another You (mono) As above. (FM) tk11 Au Privave Solo 6 choruses of 12 bars. 4 choruses 4/4 with (dm). (M) tk13 Smithville Solo 8+12 bars. Solo 3 choruses of 12 bars. (S) tk16 Embraceable You Soli 64 and 16 bars to coda. (S) tk17 Later Break 4 bars to solo 3 choruses of 36 bars. (F) tk18 Wetu Solo 3 choruses of 64 bars. (F) It took a year for Blue Note to organize LS’ second recording session. Fine variation of tunes, and LS continues to show how great he was. It should be mentioned that he was the nephew of the great trumpeter Booker Little who tragically passed away so early, there were obviously great talent in the family. He plays sparkling three choruses in very high tempo on “Bakin’”, a “Lover Come Back To Me”-clone and on “Later”. Excellent playing also in the medium tempi. Magnificent slow blues on “Smithville”. Finally there is a ballad here, and they cannot be played better than this, “Embraceable …” with a big, round, soft and beautiful tone, and occasionally the image of Brownie comes to one’s mind. This session can definitely be compared successfully with the first one. 4 KENNY BURRELL NYC. May 14, 1958 Louis Smith (tp), Junior Cook (ts-1,2,8,9,10,12,14), Tina Brooks (ts-1,2,8,10,12, 14), Duke Jordan (p-1,2,4,8,9), Bobby Timmons (p-10,11,12,14), Kenny Burrell (g), Sam Jones (b), Art Blakey (dm). Eight titles were recorded for Blue Note (tk11 “Autumn In New York” without LS), issued as”Blue Lights”: tk1 I Never Knew Solo 5 choruses of 32 bars. (F) tk2 Scotch Blues Solo 4 choruses of 12 bars. (FM) tk4 The Man I Love Solo 64 bars. (FM) tk8 Yes Baby Solo 3 choruses of 12 bars. (S) tk9 Phinupi Solo 4 choruses of 32 bars. (F) tk10 Chuckin’ Solo 3 choruses of 32 bars. Solo 4 bars. (FM) tk12 Rock Salt Solo 5 choruses of 12 bars. (SM) tk14 Caravan With ens 1 to solo 2 choruses of 64 bars. With ens to coda. (FM) One cannot but marvel at the quality of LS’ trumpet playing! From the very first bar of the fast “… Knew” to the finale of “Caravan” he plays without weak points, always with great competence and inspiration. All items here are highly noteworthy, just go ahead! For a particular highlight dig the slow blues on “Yes Baby”!Long items, enough blowing space for everybody add to the pleasure. If LS only had left us this session, he would have become a legend. HORACE SILVER QUINTET Newport, Rh. I., July 6, 1958 Louis Smith (tp), Junior Cook (ts), Horace Silver (p), Gene Taylor (b), Louis Hayes (dm). Four titles were recorded at the Newport Jazz Festival, issued as “Horace Silver Live At Newport ‘58”: Tippin’ Solo 4 choruses of 32 bars. 3 choruses chase with (dm/ts/ens). (FM) The Outlaw Solo 3 choruses of 54 bars. Solo 6 bars. (FM) Senor Blues Solo 24 bars. (SM) Cool Eyes Solo 3 choruses of 32 bars. (FM) Should like to have had a studio session with this group, but there is nothing wrong with this festival performance, except too strongdrums. Excellent trumpet playing on all items. YOUNG MEN FROM MEMPHIS NYC. Jan. 30, 1959 Booker Little, Louis Smith (tp), Frank Strozier (as), George Coleman (ts), Phineas Newborn (p), Calvin Newborn (g), George “Jamil Nasser” Joyner (b), Charles Crosby (dm). Two titles were recorded for United Artists, issued as “Down Home Reunion”: Blue ‘N’ Boogie Solo 5 choruses of 12 bars (2nd (tp)-solo). (F) stereo Things Ain’t What They Used To Be Solo 24 bars (2nd (tp)-solo). (SM) mono Things Ain’t What They Used To Be As above. (SM) LS has decided to return home and is not heard from in almost twenty years. Great shame because he shows that he could play with the greatest of his contemporaries. On this particular session he is good enough, but it has to be admitted; his more famous nephew shows him some things to think about… Postscript of Sept. 2021: A mono take of “Things ...” exists, another fine trumpet solo by LS! The next Louis Smith session takes place in 1978, and the solography thus stops conveniently here. Jazz is a music genre that originated in the African-American communities of New Orleans, Louisiana, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with its roots in blues and ragtime.[1][2][3][4] Since the 1920s Jazz Age, it has been recognized as a major form of musical expression in traditional and popular music. Jazz is characterized by swing and blue notes, complex chords, call and response vocals, polyrhythms and improvisation. Jazz has roots in European harmony and African rhythmic rituals.[5][6] As jazz spread around the world, it drew on national, regional, and local musical cultures, which gave rise to different styles. New Orleans jazz began in the early 1910s, combining earlier brass band marches, French quadrilles, biguine, ragtime and blues with collective polyphonic improvisation. But jazz did not begin as a single musical tradition in New Orleans or elsewhere.[7] In the 1930s, arranged dance-oriented swing big bands, Kansas City jazz (a hard-swinging, bluesy, improvisational style), and gypsy jazz (a style that emphasized musette waltzes) were the prominent styles. Bebop emerged in the 1940s, shifting jazz from danceable popular music toward a more challenging "musician's music" which was played at faster tempos and used more chord-based improvisation. Cool jazz developed near the end of the 1940s, introducing calmer, smoother sounds and long, linear melodic lines.[8] The mid-1950s saw the emergence of hard bop, which introduced influences from rhythm and blues, gospel, and blues to small groups and particularly to saxophone and piano. Modal jazz developed in the late 1950s, using the mode, or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation, as did free jazz, which explored playing without regular meter, beat and formal structures. Jazz-rock fusion appeared in the late 1960s and early 1970s, combining jazz improvisation with rock music's rhythms, electric instruments, and highly amplified stage sound. In the early 1980s, a commercial form of jazz fusion called smooth jazz became successful, garnering significant radio airplay. Other styles and genres abound in the 21st century, such as Latin and Afro-Cuban jazz. Etymology and definition Main article: Jazz (word) American jazz composer, lyricist, and pianist Eubie Blake made an early contribution to the genre's etymology. The origin of the word jazz has resulted in considerable research, and its history is well documented. It is believed to be related to jasm, a slang term dating back to 1860 meaning "pep, energy".[9] The earliest written record of the word is in a 1912 article in the Los Angeles Times in which a minor league baseball pitcher described a pitch which he called a "jazz ball" "because it wobbles and you simply can't do anything with it".[9] The use of the word in a musical context was documented as early as 1915 in the Chicago Daily Tribune.[10] Its first documented use in a musical context in New Orleans was in a November 14, 1916, Times-Picayune article about "jas bands".[11] In an interview with National Public Radio, musician Eubie Blake offered his recollections of the slang connotations of the term, saying: "When Broadway picked it up, they called it 'J-A-Z-Z'. It wasn't called that. It was spelled 'J-A-S-S'. That was dirty, and if you knew what it was, you wouldn't say it in front of ladies."[12] The American Dialect Society named it the Word of the 20th Century.[13] Albert Gleizes, 1915, Composition for "Jazz" from the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York Jazz is difficult to define because it encompasses a wide range of music spanning a period of over 100 years, from ragtime to rock-infused fusion. Attempts have been made to define jazz from the perspective of other musical traditions, such as European music history or African music. But critic Joachim-Ernst Berendt argues that its terms of reference and its definition should be broader,[14] defining jazz as a "form of art music which originated in the United States through the confrontation of the Negro with European music"[15] and arguing that it differs from European music in that jazz has a "special relationship to time defined as 'swing'". Jazz involves "a spontaneity and vitality of musical production in which improvisation plays a role" and contains a "sonority and manner of phrasing which mirror the individuality of the performing jazz musician".[14] A broader definition that encompasses different eras of jazz has been proposed by Travis Jackson: "it is music that includes qualities such as swing, improvising, group interaction, developing an 'individual voice', and being open to different musical possibilities".[16] Krin Gibbard argued that "jazz is a construct" which designates "a number of musics with enough in common to be understood as part of a coherent tradition".[17] Duke Ellington, one of jazz's most famous figures, said, "It's all music."[18] Elements Improvisation Main article: Jazz improvisation Although jazz is considered difficult to define, in part because it contains many subgenres, improvisation is one of its defining elements. The centrality of improvisation is attributed to the influence of earlier forms of music such as blues, a form of folk music which arose in part from the work songs and field hollers of African-American slaves on plantations. These work songs were commonly structured around a repetitive call-and-response pattern, but early blues was also improvisational. Classical music performance is evaluated more by its fidelity to the musical score, with less attention given to interpretation, ornamentation, and accompaniment. The classical performer's goal is to play the composition as it was written. In contrast, jazz is often characterized by the product of interaction and collaboration, placing less value on the contribution of the composer, if there is one, and more on the performer.[19] The jazz performer interprets a tune in individual ways, never playing the same composition twice. Depending on the performer's mood, experience, and interaction with band members or audience members, the performer may change melodies, harmonies, and time signatures.[20] In early Dixieland, a.k.a. New Orleans jazz, performers took turns playing melodies and improvising countermelodies. In the swing era of the 1920s–'40s, big bands relied more on arrangements which were written or learned by ear and memorized. Soloists improvised within these arrangements. In the bebop era of the 1940s, big bands gave way to small groups and minimal arrangements in which the melody was stated briefly at the beginning and most of the piece was improvised. Modal jazz abandoned chord progressions to allow musicians to improvise even more. In many forms of jazz, a soloist is supported by a rhythm section of one or more chordal instruments (piano, guitar), double bass, and drums. The rhythm section plays chords and rhythms that outline the composition structure and complement the soloist.[21] In avant-garde and free jazz, the separation of soloist and band is reduced, and there is license, or even a requirement, for the abandoning of chords, scales, and meters. Traditionalism Since the emergence of bebop, forms of jazz that are commercially oriented or influenced by popular music have been criticized. According to Bruce Johnson, there has always been a "tension between jazz as a commercial music and an art form".[16] Regarding the Dixieland jazz revival of the 1940s, Black musicians rejected it as being shallow nostalgia entertainment for white audiences.[22][23] On the other hand, traditional jazz enthusiasts have dismissed bebop, free jazz, and jazz fusion as forms of debasement and betrayal. An alternative view is that jazz can absorb and transform diverse musical styles.[24] By avoiding the creation of norms, jazz allows avant-garde styles to emerge.[16] Diversity in jazz Jazz and race For some African Americans, jazz has drawn attention to African-American contributions to culture and history. For others, jazz is a reminder of "an oppressive and racist society and restrictions on their artistic visions".[25] Amiri Baraka argues that there is a "white jazz" genre that expresses whiteness.[26] White jazz musicians appeared in the Midwest and in other areas throughout the U.S. Papa Jack Laine, who ran the Reliance band in New Orleans in the 1910s, was called "the father of white jazz".[27] The Original Dixieland Jazz Band, whose members were white, were the first jazz group to record, and Bix Beiderbecke was one of the most prominent jazz soloists of the 1920s.[28] The Chicago Style was developed by white musicians such as Eddie Condon, Bud Freeman, Jimmy McPartland, and Dave Tough. Others from Chicago such as Benny Goodman and Gene Krupa became leading members of swing during the 1930s.[29] Many bands included both Black and white musicians. These musicians helped change attitudes toward race in the U.S.[30] Roles of women Main article: Women in jazz Ethel Waters sang "Stormy Weather" at the Cotton Club. Female jazz performers and composers have contributed to jazz throughout its history. Although Betty Carter, Ella Fitzgerald, Adelaide Hall, Billie Holiday, Peggy Lee, Abbey Lincoln, Anita O'Day, Dinah Washington, and Ethel Waters were recognized for their vocal talent, less familiar were bandleaders, composers, and instrumentalists such as pianist Lil Hardin Armstrong, trumpeter Valaida Snow, and songwriters Irene Higginbotham and Dorothy Fields. Women began playing instruments in jazz in the early 1920s, drawing particular recognition on piano.[31] When male jazz musicians were drafted during World War II, many all-female bands replaced them.[31] The International Sweethearts of Rhythm, which was founded in 1937, was a popular band that became the first all-female integrated band in the U.S. and the first to travel with the USO, touring Europe in 1945. Women were members of the big bands of Woody Herman and Gerald Wilson. Beginning in the 1950s, many women jazz instrumentalists were prominent, some sustaining long careers. Some of the most distinctive improvisers, composers, and bandleaders in jazz have been women.[32] Trombonist Melba Liston is acknowledged as the first female horn player to work in major bands and to make a real impact on jazz, not only as a musician but also as a respected composer and arranger, particularly through her collaborations with Randy Weston from the late 1950s into the 1990s.[33][34] Jews in jazz Main article: Jews in jazz Al Jolson in 1929 Jewish Americans played a significant role in jazz. As jazz spread, it developed to encompass many different cultures, and the work of Jewish composers in Tin Pan Alley helped shape the many different sounds that jazz came to incorporate.[35] Jewish Americans were able to thrive in Jazz because of the probationary whiteness that they were allotted at the time.[36] George Bornstein wrote that African Americans were sympathetic to the plight of the Jewish American and vice versa. As disenfranchised minorities themselves, Jewish composers of popular music saw themselves as natural allies with African Americans.[37] The Jazz Singer with Al Jolson is one example of how Jewish Americans were able to bring jazz, music that African Americans developed, into popular culture.[38] Benny Goodman was a vital Jewish American to the progression of Jazz. Goodman was the leader of a racially integrated band named King of Swing. His jazz concert in the Carnegie Hall in 1938 was the first ever to be played there. The concert was described by Bruce Eder as "the single most important jazz or popular music concert in history".[39] Origins and early history Jazz originated in the late-19th to early-20th century. It developed out of many forms of music, including blues, spirituals, hymns, marches, vaudeville song, ragtime, and dance music.[40] It also incorporated interpretations of American and European classical music, entwined with African and slave folk songs and the influences of West African culture.[41] Its composition and style have changed many times throughout the years with each performer's personal interpretation and improvisation, which is also one of the greatest appeals of the genre.[42] Blended African and European music sensibilities Dance in Congo Square in the late 1700s, artist's conception by E. W. Kemble from a century later The late 18th-century painting The Old Plantation, depicting African-Americans on a Virginia plantation dancing to percussion and a banjo By the 18th century, slaves in the New Orleans area gathered socially at a special market, in an area which later became known as Congo Square, famous for its African dances.[43] By 1866, the Atlantic slave trade had brought nearly 400,000 Africans to North America.[44] The slaves came largely from West Africa and the greater Congo River basin and brought strong musical traditions with them.[45] The African traditions primarily use a single-line melody and call-and-response pattern, and the rhythms have a counter-metric structure and reflect African speech patterns.[46] An 1885 account says that they were making strange music (Creole) on an equally strange variety of 'instruments'—washboards, washtubs, jugs, boxes beaten with sticks or bones and a drum made by stretching skin over a flour-barrel.[4][47] Lavish festivals with African-based dances to drums were organized on Sundays at Place Congo, or Congo Square, in New Orleans until 1843.[48] There are historical accounts of other music and dance gatherings elsewhere in the southern United States. Robert Palmer said of percussive slave music: Usually such music was associated with annual festivals, when the year's crop was harvested and several days were set aside for celebration. As late as 1861, a traveler in North Carolina saw dancers dressed in costumes that included horned headdresses and cow tails and heard music provided by a sheepskin-covered "gumbo box", apparently a frame drum; triangles and jawbones furnished the auxiliary percussion. There are quite a few [accounts] from the southeastern states and Louisiana dating from the period 1820–1850. Some of the earliest [Mississippi] Delta settlers came from the vicinity of New Orleans, where drumming was never actively discouraged for very long and homemade drums were used to accompany public dancing until the outbreak of the Civil War.[49] Another influence came from the harmonic style of hymns of the church, which black slaves had learned and incorporated into their own music as spirituals.[50] The origins of the blues are undocumented, though they can be seen as the secular counterpart of the spirituals. However, as Gerhard Kubik points out, whereas the spirituals are homophonic, rural blues and early jazz "was largely based on concepts of heterophony".[51] The blackface Virginia Minstrels in 1843, featuring tambourine, fiddle, banjo, and bones During the early 19th century an increasing number of black musicians learned to play European instruments, particularly the violin, which they used to parody European dance music in their own cakewalk dances. In turn, European American minstrel show performers in blackface popularized the music internationally, combining syncopation with European harmonic accompaniment. In the mid-1800s the white New Orleans composer Louis Moreau Gottschalk adapted slave rhythms and melodies from Cuba and other Caribbean islands into piano salon music. New Orleans was the main nexus between the Afro-Caribbean and African American cultures. African rhythmic retention See also: Traditional sub-Saharan African harmony The Black Codes outlawed drumming by slaves, which meant that African drumming traditions were not preserved in North America, unlike in Cuba, Haiti, and elsewhere in the Caribbean. African-based rhythmic patterns were retained in the United States in large part through "body rhythms" such as stomping, clapping, and patting juba dancing.[52] In the opinion of jazz historian Ernest Borneman, what preceded New Orleans jazz before 1890 was "Afro-Latin music", similar to what was played in the Caribbean at the time.[53] A three-stroke pattern known in Cuban music as tresillo is a fundamental rhythmic figure heard in many different slave musics of the Caribbean, as well as the Afro-Caribbean folk dances performed in New Orleans Congo Square and Gottschalk's compositions (for example "Souvenirs From Havana" (1859)). Tresillo (shown below) is the most basic and most prevalent duple-pulse rhythmic cell in sub-Saharan African music traditions and the music of the African Diaspora.[54][55] \new RhythmicStaff {    \clef percussion    \time 2/4    \repeat volta 2 { c8. c16 r8[ c] } } 0:03 Tresillo is heard prominently in New Orleans second line music and in other forms of popular music from that city from the turn of the 20th century to present.[56] "By and large the simpler African rhythmic patterns survived in jazz ... because they could be adapted more readily to European rhythmic conceptions," jazz historian Gunther Schuller observed. "Some survived, others were discarded as the Europeanization progressed."[57] In the post-Civil War period (after 1865), African Americans were able to obtain surplus military bass drums, snare drums and fifes, and an original African-American drum and fife music emerged, featuring tresillo and related syncopated rhythmic figures.[58] This was a drumming tradition that was distinct from its Caribbean counterparts, expressing a uniquely African-American sensibility. "The snare and bass drummers played syncopated cross-rhythms," observed the writer Robert Palmer, speculating that "this tradition must have dated back to the latter half of the nineteenth century, and it could have not have developed in the first place if there hadn't been a reservoir of polyrhythmic sophistication in the culture it nurtured."[52] Afro-Cuban influence Further information: Music of African heritage in Cuba African-American music began incorporating Afro-Cuban rhythmic motifs in the 19th century when the habanera (Cuban contradanza) gained international popularity.[59] Musicians from Havana and New Orleans would take the twice-daily ferry between both cities to perform, and the habanera quickly took root in the musically fertile Crescent City. John Storm Roberts states that the musical genre habanera "reached the U.S. twenty years before the first rag was published."[60] For the more than quarter-century in which the cakewalk, ragtime, and proto-jazz were forming and developing, the habanera was a consistent part of African-American popular music.[60] Habaneras were widely available as sheet music and were the first written music which was rhythmically based on an African motif (1803).[61] From the perspective of African-American music, the "habanera rhythm" (also known as "congo"),[61] "tango-congo",[62] or tango.[63] can be thought of as a combination of tresillo and the backbeat.[64] The habanera was the first of many Cuban music genres which enjoyed periods of popularity in the United States and reinforced and inspired the use of tresillo-based rhythms in African-American music.     \new Staff <<        \relative c' {            \clef percussion            \time 2/4              \repeat volta 2 { g8. g16 d'8 g, }        }    >> 0:00 New Orleans native Louis Moreau Gottschalk's piano piece "Ojos Criollos (Danse Cubaine)" (1860) was influenced by the composer's studies in Cuba: the habanera rhythm is clearly heard in the left hand.[54]: 125  In Gottschalk's symphonic work "A Night in the Tropics" (1859), the tresillo variant cinquillo appears extensively.[65] The figure was later used by Scott Joplin and other ragtime composers. \new RhythmicStaff {    \clef percussion    \time 2/4    \repeat volta 2 { c8 c16 c r[ c c r] } } 0:00 Comparing the music of New Orleans with the music of Cuba, Wynton Marsalis observes that tresillo is the New Orleans "clavé", a Spanish word meaning "code" or "key", as in the key to a puzzle, or mystery.[66] Although the pattern is only half a clave, Marsalis makes the point that the single-celled figure is the guide-pattern of New Orleans music. Jelly Roll Morton called the rhythmic figure the Spanish tinge and considered it an essential ingredient of jazz.[67] Ragtime Main article: Ragtime Scott Joplin in 1903 The abolition of slavery in 1865 led to new opportunities for the education of freed African Americans. Although strict segregation limited employment opportunities for most blacks, many were able to find work in entertainment. Black musicians were able to provide entertainment in dances, minstrel shows, and in vaudeville, during which time many marching bands were formed. Black pianists played in bars, clubs, and brothels, as ragtime developed.[68][69] Ragtime appeared as sheet music, popularized by African-American musicians such as the entertainer Ernest Hogan, whose hit songs appeared in 1895. Two years later, Vess Ossman recorded a medley of these songs as a banjo solo known as "Rag Time Medley".[70][71] Also in 1897, the white composer William Krell published his "Mississippi Rag" as the first written piano instrumental ragtime piece, and Tom Turpin published his "Harlem Rag", the first rag published by an African-American. Classically trained pianist Scott Joplin produced his "Original Rags" in 1898 and, in 1899, had an international hit with "Maple Leaf Rag", a multi-strain ragtime march with four parts that feature recurring themes and a bass line with copious seventh chords. Its structure was the basis for many other rags, and the syncopations in the right hand, especially in the transition between the first and second strain, were novel at the time.[72] The last four measures of Scott Joplin's "Maple Leaf Rag" (1899) are shown below.  {    \new PianoStaff <<       \new Staff <<          \new Voice \relative c' {              \clef treble \key aes \major \time 2/4              <f aes>16 bes <f aes>8 <fes aes> <fes bes>16 <es aes>~              <es aes> bes' <es, c'> aes bes <es, c'>8 <d aes'>16~              <d aes'> bes' <d, c'> aes' r <des, bes'>8 es16              <c aes'>8 <g' des' es> <aes c es aes>              }             >>      \new Staff <<          \relative c, {              \clef bass \key aes \major \time 2/4              <des des'>8 <des des'> <bes bes'> <d d'>              <es es'> <es' aes c> <es, es'> <e e'>              <f f'> <f f'> <g g'> <g g'> <aes aes'> <es es'> <aes, aes'> \bar "|."              }          >>     >> } 0:06 African-based rhythmic patterns such as tresillo and its variants, the habanera rhythm and cinquillo, are heard in the ragtime compositions of Joplin and Turpin. Joplin's "Solace" (1909) is generally considered to be in the habanera genre:[73][74] both of the pianist's hands play in a syncopated fashion, completely abandoning any sense of a march rhythm. Ned Sublette postulates that the tresillo/habanera rhythm "found its way into ragtime and the cakewalk,"[75] whilst Roberts suggests that "the habanera influence may have been part of what freed black music from ragtime's European bass".[76] Blues Main article: Blues African genesis  { \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c' {   \clef treble \time 6/4   c4^\markup { "C blues scale" } es f fis g bes c2 } }   { \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c' {   \clef treble \time 5/4   c4^\markup { "C minor pentatonic scale" } es f g bes c2 } } A hexatonic blues scale on C, ascending Blues is the name given to both a musical form and a music genre,[77] which originated in African-American communities of primarily the Deep South of the United States at the end of the 19th century from their spirituals, work songs, field hollers, shouts and chants and rhymed simple narrative ballads.[78] The African use of pentatonic scales contributed to the development of blue notes in blues and jazz.[79] As Kubik explains: Many of the rural blues of the Deep South are stylistically an extension and merger of basically two broad accompanied song-style traditions in the west central Sudanic belt: A strongly Arabic/Islamic song style, as found for example among the Hausa. It is characterized by melisma, wavy intonation, pitch instabilities within a pentatonic framework, and a declamatory voice. An ancient west central Sudanic stratum of pentatonic song composition, often associated with simple work rhythms in a regular meter, but with notable off-beat accents.[80] W. C. Handy: early published blues W. C. Handy at 19, 1892 W. C. Handy became interested in folk blues of the Deep South while traveling through the Mississippi Delta. In this folk blues form, the singer would improvise freely within a limited melodic range, sounding like a field holler, and the guitar accompaniment was slapped rather than strummed, like a small drum which responded in syncopated accents, functioning as another "voice".[81] Handy and his band members were formally trained African-American musicians who had not grown up with the blues, yet he was able to adapt the blues to a larger band instrument format and arrange them in a popular music form. Handy wrote about his adopting of the blues: The primitive southern Negro, as he sang, was sure to bear down on the third and seventh tone of the scale, slurring between major and minor. Whether in the cotton field of the Delta or on the Levee up St. Louis way, it was always the same. Till then, however, I had never heard this slur used by a more sophisticated Negro, or by any white man. I tried to convey this effect ... by introducing flat thirds and sevenths (now called blue notes) into my song, although its prevailing key was major ... , and I carried this device into my melody as well.[82] The publication of his "Memphis Blues" sheet music in 1912 introduced the 12-bar blues to the world (although Gunther Schuller argues that it is not really a blues, but "more like a cakewalk").[83] This composition, as well as his later "St. Louis Blues" and others, included the habanera rhythm,[84] and would become jazz standards. Handy's music career began in the pre-jazz era and contributed to the codification of jazz through the publication of some of the first jazz sheet music. New Orleans Main article: Dixieland The Bolden Band around 1905 The music of New Orleans had a profound effect on the creation of early jazz. In New Orleans, slaves could practice elements of their culture such as voodoo and playing drums.[85] Many early jazz musicians played in the bars and brothels of the red-light district around Basin Street called Storyville.[86] In addition to dance bands, there were marching bands which played at lavish funerals (later called jazz funerals). The instruments used by marching bands and dance bands became the instruments of jazz: brass, drums, and reeds tuned in the European 12-tone scale. Small bands contained a combination of self-taught and formally educated musicians, many from the funeral procession tradition. These bands traveled in black communities in the deep south. Beginning in 1914, Creole and African-American musicians played in vaudeville shows which carried jazz to cities in the northern and western parts of the U.S.[87] Jazz became international in 1914, when the Creole Band with cornettist Freddie Keppard performed the first ever jazz concert outside the United States, at the Pantages Playhouse Theatre in Winnipeg, Canada.[88] In New Orleans, a white bandleader named Papa Jack Laine integrated blacks and whites in his marching band. He was known as "the father of white jazz" because of the many top players he employed, such as George Brunies, Sharkey Bonano, and future members of the Original Dixieland Jass Band. During the early 1900s, jazz was mostly performed in African-American and mulatto communities due to segregation laws. Storyville brought jazz to a wider audience through tourists who visited the port city of New Orleans.[89] Many jazz musicians from African-American communities were hired to perform in bars and brothels. These included Buddy Bolden and Jelly Roll Morton in addition to those from other communities, such as Lorenzo Tio and Alcide Nunez. Louis Armstrong started his career in Storyville[90] and found success in Chicago. Storyville was shut down by the U.S. government in 1917.[91] Syncopation Jelly Roll Morton, in Los Angeles, California, c. 1917 or 1918 Cornetist Buddy Bolden played in New Orleans from 1895 to 1906. No recordings by him exist. His band is credited with creating the big four: the first syncopated bass drum pattern to deviate from the standard on-the-beat march.[92] As the example below shows, the second half of the big four pattern is the habanera rhythm.     \new Staff <<        \relative c' {            \clef percussion            \time 4/4              \repeat volta 2 { g8 \xNote a' g, \xNote a' g, \xNote a'16. g,32 g8 <g \xNote a'> }            \repeat volta 2 { r8 \xNote a'\noBeam g, \xNote a' g, \xNote a'16. g,32 g8 <g \xNote a'> }        }    >> 0:00 Afro-Creole pianist Jelly Roll Morton began his career in Storyville. Beginning in 1904, he toured with vaudeville shows to southern cities, Chicago, and New York City. In 1905, he composed "Jelly Roll Blues", which became the first jazz arrangement in print when it was published in 1915. It introduced more musicians to the New Orleans style.[93] Morton considered the tresillo/habanera, which he called the Spanish tinge, an essential ingredient of jazz.[94] "Now in one of my earliest tunes, "New Orleans Blues," you can notice the Spanish tinge. In fact, if you can't manage to put tinges of Spanish in your tunes, you will never be able to get the right seasoning, I call it, for jazz."[67] An excerpt of "New Orleans Blues" is shown below. In the excerpt, the left hand plays the tresillo rhythm, while the right hand plays variations on cinquillo.     {       \new PianoStaff <<         \new Staff <<             \relative c'' {                 \clef treble \key bes \major \time 2/2                 f8 <f, f'> <g g'> <f~ cis'> <f d'> <f f'> <g d' g>4                 r8 <f f'> <g g'> <f~ cis'> <f d'> <f f'> <g d' g>4                 r8 <f d' f> <g d' g> <f~ cis'> <f d'> <f d' f> <g d' g> <f d' f>                 }             >>         \new Staff <<             \relative c {                 \clef bass \key bes \major \time 2/2                 <bes bes'>4. <f' d'>8~ <f d'>4 <f, f'>4                 <bes f' bes>4. <f' d'>8~ <f d'>4 <f, f'>4                 <bes f' bes>4. <f' d'>8~ <f d'>4 <f, f'>4                 }             >>     >> } 0:07 Morton was a crucial innovator in the evolution from the early jazz form known as ragtime to jazz piano, and could perform pieces in either style; in 1938, Morton made a series of recordings for the Library of Congress in which he demonstrated the difference between the two styles. Morton's solos, however, were still close to ragtime, and were not merely improvisations over chord changes as in later jazz, but his use of the blues was of equal importance. Swing in the early 20th century \new RhythmicStaff {    \clef percussion    \time 4/4    \repeat volta 2 { c8^\markup { "Even subdivisions" } c16 c c8 c16 c c8 c16 c c8 c16 c } } 0:00   \new RhythmicStaff {    \clef percussion    \time 4/4    \repeat volta 2 { c8[^\markup { "Swung correlative" } \tuplet 3/2 { c16 r c] }  c8[ \tuplet 3/2 { c16 r c] }  c8[ \tuplet 3/2 { c16 r c] }  c8[ \tuplet 3/2 { c16 r c] } } } 0:00 Morton loosened ragtime's rigid rhythmic feeling, decreasing its embellishments and employing a swing feeling.[95] Swing is the most important and enduring African-based rhythmic technique used in jazz. An oft quoted definition of swing by Louis Armstrong is: "if you don't feel it, you'll never know it."[96] The New Harvard Dictionary of Music states that swing is: "An intangible rhythmic momentum in jazz...Swing defies analysis; claims to its presence may inspire arguments." The dictionary does nonetheless provide the useful description of triple subdivisions of the beat contrasted with duple subdivisions:[97] swing superimposes six subdivisions of the beat over a basic pulse structure or four subdivisions. This aspect of swing is far more prevalent in African-American music than in Afro-Caribbean music. One aspect of swing, which is heard in more rhythmically complex Diaspora musics, places strokes in-between the triple and duple-pulse "grids".[98] New Orleans brass bands are a lasting influence, contributing horn players to the world of professional jazz with the distinct sound of the city whilst helping black children escape poverty. The leader of New Orleans' Camelia Brass Band, D'Jalma Ganier, taught Louis Armstrong to play trumpet; Armstrong would then popularize the New Orleans style of trumpet playing, and then expand it. Like Jelly Roll Morton, Armstrong is also credited with the abandonment of ragtime's stiffness in favor of swung notes. Armstrong, perhaps more than any other musician, codified the rhythmic technique of swing in jazz and broadened the jazz solo vocabulary.[99] The Original Dixieland Jass Band made the music's first recordings early in 1917, and their "Livery Stable Blues" became the earliest released jazz record.[100][101][102][103][104][105][106] That year, numerous other bands made recordings featuring "jazz" in the title or band name, but most were ragtime or novelty records rather than jazz. In February 1918 during World War I, James Reese Europe's "Hellfighters" infantry band took ragtime to Europe,[107][108] then on their return recorded Dixieland standards including "Darktown Strutters' Ball".[109] Other regions In the northeastern United States, a "hot" style of playing ragtime had developed, notably James Reese Europe's symphonic Clef Club orchestra in New York City, which played a benefit concert at Carnegie Hall in 1912.[109][110] The Baltimore rag style of Eubie Blake influenced James P. Johnson's development of stride piano playing, in which the right hand plays the melody, while the left hand provides the rhythm and bassline.[111] In Ohio and elsewhere in the mid-west the major influence was ragtime, until about 1919. Around 1912, when the four-string banjo and saxophone came in, musicians began to improvise the melody line, but the harmony and rhythm remained unchanged. A contemporary account states that blues could only be heard in jazz in the gut-bucket cabarets, which were generally looked down upon by the Black middle-class.[112] The Jazz Age Main article: Jazz Age The King & Carter Jazzing Orchestra photographed in Houston, Texas, January 1921 From 1920 to 1933, Prohibition in the United States banned the sale of alcoholic drinks, resulting in illicit speakeasies which became lively venues of the "Jazz Age", hosting popular music, dance songs, novelty songs, and show tunes. Jazz began to get a reputation as immoral, and many members of the older generations saw it as a threat to the old cultural values by promoting the decadent values of the Roaring 20s. Henry van Dyke of Princeton University wrote, "... it is not music at all. It's merely an irritation of the nerves of hearing, a sensual teasing of the strings of physical passion."[113] The New York Times reported that Siberian villagers used jazz to scare away bears, but the villagers had used pots and pans; another story claimed that the fatal heart attack of a celebrated conductor was caused by jazz.[113] Jazz Me Blues 2:59 The Original Dixieland Jass Band performing "Jazz Me Blues", an example of a jazz piece from 1921 Problems playing this file? See media help. In 1919, Kid Ory's Original Creole Jazz Band of musicians from New Orleans began playing in San Francisco and Los Angeles, where in 1922 they became the first black jazz band of New Orleans origin to make recordings.[114][115] During the same year, Bessie Smith made her first recordings.[116] Chicago was developing "Hot Jazz", and King Oliver joined Bill Johnson. Bix Beiderbecke formed The Wolverines in 1924. Despite its Southern black origins, there was a larger market for jazzy dance music played by white orchestras. In 1918, Paul Whiteman and his orchestra became a hit in San Francisco. He signed a contract with Victor and became the top bandleader of the 1920s, giving hot jazz a white component, hiring white musicians such as Bix Beiderbecke, Jimmy Dorsey, Tommy Dorsey, Frankie Trumbauer, and Joe Venuti. In 1924, Whiteman commissioned George Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue, which was premiered by his orchestra. Jazz began to be recognized as a notable musical form. Olin Downes, reviewing the concert in The New York Times, wrote, "This composition shows extraordinary talent, as it shows a young composer with aims that go far beyond those of his ilk, struggling with a form of which he is far from being master. ... In spite of all this, he has expressed himself in a significant and, on the whole, highly original form. ... His first theme ... is no mere dance-tune ... it is an idea, or several ideas, correlated and combined in varying and contrasting rhythms that immediately intrigue the listener."[117] After Whiteman's band successfully toured Europe, huge hot jazz orchestras in theater pits caught on with other whites, including Fred Waring, Jean Goldkette, and Nathaniel Shilkret. According to Mario Dunkel, Whiteman's success was based on a "rhetoric of domestication" according to which he had elevated and rendered valuable (read "white") a previously inchoate (read "black") kind of music.[118] Louis Armstrong began his career in New Orleans and became one of jazz's most recognizable performers. Whiteman's success caused black artists to follow suit, including Earl Hines (who opened in The Grand Terrace Cafe in Chicago in 1928), Duke Ellington (who opened at the Cotton Club in Harlem in 1927), Lionel Hampton, Fletcher Henderson, Claude Hopkins, and Don Redman, with Henderson and Redman developing the "talking to one another" formula for "hot" swing music.[119] In 1924, Louis Armstrong joined the Fletcher Henderson dance band for a year, as featured soloist. The original New Orleans style was polyphonic, with theme variation and simultaneous collective improvisation. Armstrong was a master of his hometown style, but by the time he joined Henderson's band, he was already a trailblazer in a new phase of jazz, with its emphasis on arrangements and soloists. Armstrong's solos went well beyond the theme-improvisation concept and extemporized on chords, rather than melodies. According to Schuller, by comparison, the solos by Armstrong's bandmates (including a young Coleman Hawkins), sounded "stiff, stodgy", with "jerky rhythms and a grey undistinguished tone quality".[120] The following example shows a short excerpt of the straight melody of "Mandy, Make Up Your Mind" by George W. Meyer and Arthur Johnston (top), compared with Armstrong's solo improvisations (below) (recorded 1924).[121] Armstrong's solos were a significant factor in making jazz a true 20th-century language. After leaving Henderson's group, Armstrong formed his Hot Five band, where he popularized scat singing.[122] Swing in the 1920s and 1930s Main articles: Swing music and 1930s in jazz Benny Goodman (1943) The 1930s belonged to popular swing big bands, in which some virtuoso soloists became as famous as the band leaders. Key figures in developing the "big" jazz band included bandleaders and arrangers Count Basie, Cab Calloway, Jimmy and Tommy Dorsey, Duke Ellington, Benny Goodman, Fletcher Henderson, Earl Hines, Harry James, Jimmie Lunceford, Glenn Miller and Artie Shaw. Although it was a collective sound, swing also offered individual musicians a chance to "solo" and improvise melodic, thematic solos which could at times be complex "important" music. Over time, social strictures regarding racial segregation began to relax in America: white bandleaders began to recruit black musicians and black bandleaders white ones. In the mid-1930s, Benny Goodman hired pianist Teddy Wilson, vibraphonist Lionel Hampton and guitarist Charlie Christian to join small groups. In the 1930s, Kansas City Jazz as exemplified by tenor saxophonist Lester Young marked the transition from big bands to the bebop influence of the 1940s. An early 1940s style known as "jumping the blues" or jump blues used small combos, uptempo music and blues chord progressions, drawing on boogie-woogie from the 1930s. The influence of Duke Ellington Duke Ellington at the Hurricane Club (1943) While swing was reaching the height of its popularity, Duke Ellington spent the late 1920s and 1930s developing an innovative musical idiom for his orchestra. Abandoning the conventions of swing, he experimented with orchestral sounds, harmony, and musical form with complex compositions that still translated well for popular audiences; some of his tunes became hits, and his own popularity spanned from the United States to Europe.[123] Ellington called his music American Music, rather than jazz, and liked to describe those who impressed him as "beyond category".[124] These included many musicians from his orchestra, some of whom are considered among the best in jazz in their own right, but it was Ellington who melded them into one of the most popular jazz orchestras in the history of jazz. He often composed for the style and skills of these individuals, such as "Jeep's Blues" for Johnny Hodges, "Concerto for Cootie" for Cootie Williams (which later became "Do Nothing Till You Hear from Me" with Bob Russell's lyrics), and "The Mooche" for Tricky Sam Nanton and Bubber Miley. He also recorded compositions written by his bandsmen, such as Juan Tizol's "Caravan" and "Perdido", which brought the "Spanish Tinge" to big-band jazz. Several members of the orchestra remained with him for several decades. The band reached a creative peak in the early 1940s, when Ellington and a small hand-picked group of his composers and arrangers wrote for an orchestra of distinctive voices who displayed tremendous creativity.[125] Beginnings of European jazz As only a limited number of American jazz records were released in Europe, European jazz traces many of its roots to American artists such as James Reese Europe, Paul Whiteman, and Lonnie Johnson, who visited Europe during and after World War I. It was their live performances which inspired European audiences' interest in jazz, as well as the interest in all things American (and therefore exotic) which accompanied the economic and political woes of Europe during this time.[126] The beginnings of a distinct European style of jazz began to emerge in this interwar period. British jazz began with a tour by the Original Dixieland Jazz Band in 1919. In 1926, Fred Elizalde and His Cambridge Undergraduates began broadcasting on the BBC. Thereafter jazz became an important element in many leading dance orchestras, and jazz instrumentalists became numerous.[127] This style entered full swing in France with the Quintette du Hot Club de France, which began in 1934. Much of this French jazz was a combination of African-American jazz and the symphonic styles in which French musicians were well-trained; in this, it is easy to see the inspiration taken from Paul Whiteman since his style was also a fusion of the two.[128] Belgian guitarist Django Reinhardt popularized gypsy jazz, a mix of 1930s American swing, French dance hall "musette", and Eastern European folk with a languid, seductive feel; the main instruments were steel stringed guitar, violin, and double bass. Solos pass from one player to another as guitar and bass form the rhythm section. Some researchers believe Eddie Lang and Joe Venuti pioneered the guitar-violin partnership characteristic of the genre,[129] which was brought to France after they had been heard live or on Okeh Records in the late 1920s.[130] Post-war jazz See also: 1940s in jazz, 1950s in jazz, 1960s in jazz, 1970s in jazz, and album era The "classic quintet": Charlie Parker, Tommy Potter, Miles Davis, Dizzy Gillespie, and Max Roach performing at Three Deuces in New York City. Photograph by William P. Gottlieb (August 1947), Library of Congress. The outbreak of World War II marked a turning point for jazz. The swing-era jazz of the previous decade had challenged other popular music as being representative of the nation's culture, with big bands reaching the height of the style's success by the early 1940s; swing acts and big bands traveled with U.S. military overseas to Europe, where it also became popular.[131] Stateside, however, the war presented difficulties for the big-band format: conscription shortened the number of musicians available; the military's need for shellac (commonly used for pressing gramophone records) limited record production; a shortage of rubber (also due to the war effort) discouraged bands from touring via road travel; and a demand by the musicians' union for a commercial recording ban limited music distribution between 1942 and 1944.[132] Many of the big bands who were deprived of experienced musicians because of the war effort began to enlist young players who were below the age for conscription, as was the case with saxophonist Stan Getz's entry in a band as a teenager.[133] This coincided with a nationwide resurgence in the Dixieland style of pre-swing jazz; performers such as clarinetist George Lewis, cornetist Bill Davison, and trombonist Turk Murphy were hailed by conservative jazz critics as more authentic than the big bands.[132] Elsewhere, with the limitations on recording, small groups of young musicians developed a more uptempo, improvisational style of jazz,[131] collaborating and experimenting with new ideas for melodic development, rhythmic language, and harmonic substitution, during informal, late-night jam sessions hosted in small clubs and apartments. Key figures in this development were largely based in New York and included pianists Thelonious Monk and Bud Powell, drummers Max Roach and Kenny Clarke, saxophonist Charlie Parker, and trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie.[132] This musical development became known as bebop.[131] Bebop and subsequent post-war jazz developments featured a wider set of notes, played in more complex patterns and at faster tempos than previous jazz.[133] According to Clive James, bebop was "the post-war musical development which tried to ensure that jazz would no longer be the spontaneous sound of joy ... Students of race relations in America are generally agreed that the exponents of post-war jazz were determined, with good reason, to present themselves as challenging artists rather than tame entertainers."[134] The end of the war marked "a revival of the spirit of experimentation and musical pluralism under which it had been conceived", along with "the beginning of a decline in the popularity of jazz music in America", according to American academic Michael H. Burchett.[131] With the rise of bebop and the end of the swing era after the war, jazz lost its cachet as pop music. Vocalists of the famous big bands moved on to being marketed and performing as solo pop singers; these included Frank Sinatra, Peggy Lee, Dick Haymes, and Doris Day.[133] Older musicians who still performed their pre-war jazz, such as Armstrong and Ellington, were gradually viewed in the mainstream as passé. Other younger performers, such as singer Big Joe Turner and saxophonist Louis Jordan, who were discouraged by bebop's increasing complexity, pursued more lucrative endeavors in rhythm and blues, jump blues, and eventually rock and roll.[131] Some, including Gillespie, composed intricate yet danceable pieces for bebop musicians in an effort to make them more accessible, but bebop largely remained on the fringes of American audiences' purview. "The new direction of postwar jazz drew a wealth of critical acclaim, but it steadily declined in popularity as it developed a reputation as an academic genre that was largely inaccessible to mainstream audiences", Burchett said. "The quest to make jazz more relevant to popular audiences, while retaining its artistic integrity, is a constant and prevalent theme in the history of postwar jazz."[131] During its swing period, jazz had been an uncomplicated musical scene; according to Paul Trynka, this changed in the post-war years: Suddenly jazz was no longer straightforward. There was bebop and its variants, there was the last gasp of swing, there were strange new brews like the progressive jazz of Stan Kenton, and there was a completely new phenomenon called revivalism – the rediscovery of jazz from the past, either on old records or performed live by aging players brought out of retirement. From now on it was no good saying that you liked jazz, you had to specify what kind of jazz. And that is the way it has been ever since, only more so. Today, the word 'jazz' is virtually meaningless without further definition.[133] Bebop Main article: Bebop In the early 1940s, bebop-style performers began to shift jazz from danceable popular music toward a more challenging "musician's music". The most influential bebop musicians included saxophonist Charlie Parker, pianists Bud Powell and Thelonious Monk, trumpeters Dizzy Gillespie and Clifford Brown, and drummer Max Roach. Divorcing itself from dance music, bebop established itself more as an art form, thus lessening its potential popular and commercial appeal. Composer Gunther Schuller wrote: "In 1943 I heard the great Earl Hines band which had Bird in it and all those other great musicians. They were playing all the flatted fifth chords and all the modern harmonies and substitutions and Dizzy Gillespie runs in the trumpet section work. Two years later I read that that was 'bop' and the beginning of modern jazz ... but the band never made recordings."[135] Dizzy Gillespie wrote: "People talk about the Hines band being 'the incubator of bop' and the leading exponents of that music ended up in the Hines band. But people also have the erroneous impression that the music was new. It was not. The music evolved from what went before. It was the same basic music. The difference was in how you got from here to here to here...naturally each age has got its own shit."[136] Since bebop was meant to be listened to, not danced to, it could use faster tempos. Drumming shifted to a more elusive and explosive style, in which the ride cymbal was used to keep time while the snare and bass drum were used for accents. This led to a highly syncopated music with a linear rhythmic complexity.[137] Bebop musicians employed several harmonic devices which were not previously typical in jazz, engaging in a more abstracted form of chord-based improvisation. Bebop scales are traditional scales with an added chromatic passing note;[138] bebop also uses "passing" chords, substitute chords, and altered chords. New forms of chromaticism and dissonance were introduced into jazz, and the dissonant tritone (or "flatted fifth") interval became the "most important interval of bebop"[139] Chord progressions for bebop tunes were often taken directly from popular swing-era tunes and reused with a new and more complex melody and/or reharmonized with more complex chord progressions to form new compositions, a practice which was already well-established in earlier jazz, but came to be central to the bebop style. Bebop made use of several relatively common chord progressions, such as blues (at base, I–IV–V, but often infused with ii–V motion) and "rhythm changes" (I–VI–ii–V) – the chords to the 1930s pop standard "I Got Rhythm". Late bop also moved towards extended forms that represented a departure from pop and show tunes. The harmonic development in bebop is often traced back to a moment experienced by Charlie Parker while performing "Cherokee" at Clark Monroe's Uptown House, New York, in early 1942. "I'd been getting bored with the stereotyped changes that were being used...and I kept thinking there's bound to be something else. I could hear it sometimes. I couldn't play it...I was working over 'Cherokee,' and, as I did, I found that by using the higher intervals of a chord as a melody line and backing them with appropriately related changes, I could play the thing I'd been hearing. It came alive."[140] Gerhard Kubik postulates that harmonic development in bebop sprang from blues and African-related tonal sensibilities rather than 20th-century Western classical music. "Auditory inclinations were the African legacy in [Parker's] life, reconfirmed by the experience of the blues tonal system, a sound world at odds with the Western diatonic chord categories. Bebop musicians eliminated Western-style functional harmony in their music while retaining the strong central tonality of the blues as a basis for drawing upon various African matrices."[140] Samuel Floyd states that blues was both the bedrock and propelling force of bebop, bringing about a new harmonic conception using extended chord structures that led to unprecedented harmonic and melodic variety, a developed and even more highly syncopated, linear rhythmic complexity and a melodic angularity in which the blue note of the fifth degree was established as an important melodic-harmonic device; and reestablishment of the blues as the primary organizing and functional principle.[137] Kubik wrote: While for an outside observer, the harmonic innovations in bebop would appear to be inspired by experiences in Western "serious" music, from Claude Debussy to Arnold Schoenberg, such a scheme cannot be sustained by the evidence from a cognitive approach. Claude Debussy did have some influence on jazz, for example, on Bix Beiderbecke's piano playing. And it is also true that Duke Ellington adopted and reinterpreted some harmonic devices in European contemporary music. West Coast jazz would run into such debts as would several forms of cool jazz, but bebop has hardly any such debts in the sense of direct borrowings. On the contrary, ideologically, bebop was a strong statement of rejection of any kind of eclecticism, propelled by a desire to activate something deeply buried in self. Bebop then revived tonal-harmonic ideas transmitted through the blues and reconstructed and expanded others in a basically non-Western harmonic approach. The ultimate significance of all this is that the experiments in jazz during the 1940s brought back to African-American music several structural principles and techniques rooted in African traditions.[141] These divergences from the jazz mainstream of the time met a divided, sometimes hostile response among fans and musicians, especially swing players who bristled at the new harmonic sounds. To hostile critics, bebop seemed filled with "racing, nervous phrases".[142] But despite the friction, by the 1950s bebop had become an accepted part of the jazz vocabulary. Afro-Cuban jazz (cu-bop) Main article: Afro-Cuban jazz Machito (maracas) and his sister Graciella Grillo (claves) Machito and Mario Bauza The general consensus among musicians and musicologists is that the first original jazz piece to be overtly based in clave was "Tanga" (1943), composed by Cuban-born Mario Bauza and recorded by Machito and his Afro-Cubans in New York City. "Tanga" began as a spontaneous descarga (Cuban jam session), with jazz solos superimposed on top.[143] This was the birth of Afro-Cuban jazz. The use of clave brought the African timeline, or key pattern, into jazz. Music organized around key patterns convey a two-celled (binary) structure, which is a complex level of African cross-rhythm.[144] Within the context of jazz, however, harmony is the primary referent, not rhythm. The harmonic progression can begin on either side of clave, and the harmonic "one" is always understood to be "one". If the progression begins on the "three-side" of clave, it is said to be in 3–2 clave (shown below). If the progression begins on the "two-side", it is in 2–3 clave.[145] \new RhythmicStaff {    \clef percussion    \time 4/4    \repeat volta 2 { c8. c16 r8[ c] r[ c] c4 } } 0:08 Dizzy Gillespie and Chano Pozo Dizzy Gillespie, 1955 Mario Bauzá introduced bebop innovator Dizzy Gillespie to Cuban conga drummer and composer Chano Pozo. Gillespie and Pozo's brief collaboration produced some of the most enduring Afro-Cuban jazz standards. "Manteca" (1947) is the first jazz standard to be rhythmically based on clave. According to Gillespie, Pozo composed the layered, contrapuntal guajeos (Afro-Cuban ostinatos) of the A section and the introduction, while Gillespie wrote the bridge. Gillespie recounted: "If I'd let it go like [Chano] wanted it, it would have been strictly Afro-Cuban all the way. There wouldn't have been a bridge. I thought I was writing an eight-bar bridge, but ... I had to keep going and ended up writing a sixteen-bar bridge."[146] The bridge gave "Manteca" a typical jazz harmonic structure, setting the piece apart from Bauza's modal "Tanga" of a few years earlier. Gillespie's collaboration with Pozo brought specific African-based rhythms into bebop. While pushing the boundaries of harmonic improvisation, cu-bop also drew from African rhythm. Jazz arrangements with a Latin A section and a swung B section, with all choruses swung during solos, became common practice with many Latin tunes of the jazz standard repertoire. This approach can be heard on pre-1980 recordings of "Manteca", "A Night in Tunisia", "Tin Tin Deo", and "On Green Dolphin Street". African cross-rhythm Mongo Santamaria (1969) Cuban percussionist Mongo Santamaria first recorded his composition "Afro Blue" in 1959.[147] "Afro Blue" was the first jazz standard built upon a typical African three-against-two (3:2) cross-rhythm, or hemiola.[148] The piece begins with the bass repeatedly playing 6 cross-beats per each measure of 12 8, or 6 cross-beats per 4 main beats—6:4 (two cells of 3:2). The following example shows the original ostinato "Afro Blue" bass line. The cross noteheads indicate the main beats (not bass notes).     \new Staff <<        \new voice \relative c {            \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"acoustic bass"            \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 105            \time 12/8            \clef bass                   \stemUp \repeat volta 2 { d4 a'8~ a d4 d,4 a'8~ a d4 }        }        \new voice \relative c {            \override NoteHead.style = #'cross            \stemDown \repeat volta 2 { g4. g g g }        }    >> When John Coltrane covered "Afro Blue" in 1963, he inverted the metric hierarchy, interpreting the tune as a 3 4 jazz waltz with duple cross-beats superimposed (2:3). Originally a B♭ pentatonic blues, Coltrane expanded the harmonic structure of "Afro Blue". Perhaps the most respected Afro-cuban jazz combo of the late 1950s was vibraphonist Cal Tjader's band. Tjader had Mongo Santamaria, Armando Peraza, and Willie Bobo on his early recording dates. Dixieland revival In the late 1940s, there was a revival of Dixieland, harking back to the contrapuntal New Orleans style. This was driven in large part by record company reissues of jazz classics by the Oliver, Morton, and Armstrong bands of the 1930s. There were two types of musicians involved in the revival: the first group was made up of those who had begun their careers playing in the traditional style and were returning to it (or continuing what they had been playing all along), such as Bob Crosby's Bobcats, Max Kaminsky, Eddie Condon, and Wild Bill Davison.[149] Most of these players were originally Midwesterners, although there were a small number of New Orleans musicians involved. The second group of revivalists consisted of younger musicians, such as those in the Lu Watters band, Conrad Janis, and Ward Kimball and his Firehouse Five Plus Two Jazz Band. By the late 1940s, Louis Armstrong's Allstars band became a leading ensemble. Through the 1950s and 1960s, Dixieland was one of the most commercially popular jazz styles in the US, Europe, and Japan, although critics paid little attention to it.[149] Hard bop Main article: Hard bop Art Blakey (1973) Hard bop is an extension of bebop (or "bop") music that incorporates influences from blues, rhythm and blues, and gospel, especially in saxophone and piano playing. Hard bop was developed in the mid-1950s, coalescing in 1953 and 1954; it developed partly in response to the vogue for cool jazz in the early 1950s and paralleled the rise of rhythm and blues. It has been described as "funky" and can be considered a relative of soul jazz.[150] Some elements of the genre were simplified from their bebop roots.[151] Miles Davis' 1954 performance of "Walkin'" at the first Newport Jazz Festival introduced the style to the jazz world.[152] Further leaders of hard bop's development included the Clifford Brown/Max Roach Quintet, Art Blakey's Jazz Messengers, the Horace Silver Quintet, and trumpeters Lee Morgan and Freddie Hubbard. The late 1950s to early 1960s saw hard boppers form their own bands as a new generation of blues- and bebop-influenced musicians entered the jazz world, from pianists Wynton Kelly and Tommy Flanagan[153] to saxophonists Joe Henderson and Hank Mobley. Coltrane, Johnny Griffin, Mobley, and Morgan all participated on the album A Blowin' Session (1957), considered by Al Campbell to have been one of the high points of the hard bop era.[154] Hard bop was prevalent within jazz for about a decade spanning from 1955 to 1965,[153] but has remained highly influential on mainstream[151] or "straight-ahead" jazz. It went into decline in the late 1960s through the 1970s due to the emergence of other styles such as jazz fusion, but again became influential following the Young Lions Movement and the emergence of neo-bop.[151] Modal jazz Main article: Modal jazz Modal jazz is a development which began in the later 1950s which takes the mode, or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation. Previously, a solo was meant to fit into a given chord progression, but with modal jazz, the soloist creates a melody using one (or a small number of) modes. The emphasis is thus shifted from harmony to melody:[155] "Historically, this caused a seismic shift among jazz musicians, away from thinking vertically (the chord), and towards a more horizontal approach (the scale)",[156] explained pianist Mark Levine. The modal theory stems from a work by George Russell. Miles Davis introduced the concept to the greater jazz world with Kind of Blue (1959), an exploration of the possibilities of modal jazz which would become the best selling jazz album of all time. In contrast to Davis' earlier work with hard bop and its complex chord progression and improvisation, Kind of Blue was composed as a series of modal sketches in which the musicians were given scales that defined the parameters of their improvisation and style.[157] "I didn't write out the music for Kind of Blue, but brought in sketches for what everybody was supposed to play because I wanted a lot of spontaneity,"[158] recalled Davis. The track "So What" has only two chords: D-7 and E♭-7.[159] Other innovators in this style include Jackie McLean,[160] and two of the musicians who had also played on Kind of Blue: John Coltrane and Bill Evans. Free jazz Main article: Free jazz John Coltrane, 1963 Free jazz, and the related form of avant-garde jazz, broke through into an open space of "free tonality" in which meter, beat, and formal symmetry all disappeared, and a range of world music from India, Africa, and Arabia were melded into an intense, even religiously ecstatic or orgiastic style of playing.[161] While loosely inspired by bebop, free jazz tunes gave players much more latitude; the loose harmony and tempo was deemed controversial when this approach was first developed. The bassist Charles Mingus is also frequently associated with the avant-garde in jazz, although his compositions draw from myriad styles and genres. The first major stirrings came in the 1950s with the early work of Ornette Coleman (whose 1960 album Free Jazz: A Collective Improvisation coined the term) and Cecil Taylor. In the 1960s, exponents included Albert Ayler, Gato Barbieri, Carla Bley, Don Cherry, Larry Coryell, John Coltrane, Bill Dixon, Jimmy Giuffre, Steve Lacy, Michael Mantler, Sun Ra, Roswell Rudd, Pharoah Sanders, and John Tchicai. In developing his late style, Coltrane was especially influenced by the dissonance of Ayler's trio with bassist Gary Peacock and drummer Sunny Murray, a rhythm section honed with Cecil Taylor as leader. In November 1961, Coltrane played a gig at the Village Vanguard, which resulted in the classic Chasin' the 'Trane, which DownBeat magazine panned as "anti-jazz". On his 1961 tour of France, he was booed, but persevered, signing with the new Impulse! Records in 1960 and turning it into "the house that Trane built", while championing many younger free jazz musicians, notably Archie Shepp, who often played with trumpeter Bill Dixon, who organized the 4-day "October Revolution in Jazz" in Manhattan in 1964, the first free jazz festival. A series of recordings with the Classic Quartet in the first half of 1965 show Coltrane's playing becoming increasingly abstract, with greater incorporation of devices like multiphonics, utilization of overtones, and playing in the altissimo register, as well as a mutated return to Coltrane's sheets of sound. In the studio, he all but abandoned his soprano to concentrate on the tenor saxophone. In addition, the quartet responded to the leader by playing with increasing freedom. The group's evolution can be traced through the recordings The John Coltrane Quartet Plays, Living Space and Transition (both June 1965), New Thing at Newport (July 1965), Sun Ship (August 1965), and First Meditations (September 1965). In June 1965, Coltrane and 10 other musicians recorded Ascension, a 40-minute-long piece without breaks that included adventurous solos by young avant-garde musicians as well as Coltrane, and was controversial primarily for the collective improvisation sections that separated the solos. Dave Liebman later called it "the torch that lit the free jazz thing". After recording with the quartet over the next few months, Coltrane invited Pharoah Sanders to join the band in September 1965. While Coltrane used over-blowing frequently as an emotional exclamation-point, Sanders would opt to overblow his entire solo, resulting in a constant screaming and screeching in the altissimo range of the instrument. Free jazz in Europe Peter Brötzmann is a key figure in European free jazz. Free jazz was played in Europe in part because musicians such as Ayler, Taylor, Steve Lacy, and Eric Dolphy spent extended periods of time there, and European musicians such as Michael Mantler and John Tchicai traveled to the U.S. to experience American music firsthand. European contemporary jazz was shaped by Peter Brötzmann, John Surman, Krzysztof Komeda, Zbigniew Namysłowski, Tomasz Stanko, Lars Gullin, Joe Harriott, Albert Mangelsdorff, Kenny Wheeler, Graham Collier, Michael Garrick and Mike Westbrook. They were eager to develop approaches to music that reflected their heritage. Since the 1960s, creative centers of jazz in Europe have developed, such as the creative jazz scene in Amsterdam. Following the work of drummer Han Bennink and pianist Misha Mengelberg, musicians started to explore by improvising collectively until a form (melody, rhythm, a famous song) is found Jazz critic Kevin Whitehead documented the free jazz scene in Amsterdam and some of its main exponents such as the ICP (Instant Composers Pool) orchestra in his book New Dutch Swing. Since the 1990s Keith Jarrett has defended free jazz from criticism. British writer Stuart Nicholson has argued European contemporary jazz has an identity different from American jazz and follows a different trajectory.[162] Latin jazz Main article: Latin jazz Latin jazz is jazz that employs Latin American rhythms and is generally understood to have a more specific meaning than simply jazz from Latin America. A more precise term might be Afro-Latin jazz, as the jazz subgenre typically employs rhythms that either have a direct analog in Africa or exhibit an African rhythmic influence beyond what is ordinarily heard in other jazz. The two main categories of Latin jazz are Afro-Cuban jazz and Brazilian jazz. In the 1960s and 1970s, many jazz musicians had only a basic understanding of Cuban and Brazilian music, and jazz compositions which used Cuban or Brazilian elements were often referred to as "Latin tunes", with no distinction between a Cuban son montuno and a Brazilian bossa nova. Even as late as 2000, in Mark Gridley's Jazz Styles: History and Analysis, a bossa nova bass line is referred to as a "Latin bass figure".[163] It was not uncommon during the 1960s and 1970s to hear a conga playing a Cuban tumbao while the drumset and bass played a Brazilian bossa nova pattern. Many jazz standards such as "Manteca", "On Green Dolphin Street" and "Song for My Father" have a "Latin" A section and a swung B section. Typically, the band would only play an even-eighth "Latin" feel in the A section of the head and swing throughout all of the solos. Latin jazz specialists like Cal Tjader tended to be the exception. For example, on a 1959 live Tjader recording of "A Night in Tunisia", pianist Vince Guaraldi soloed through the entire form over an authentic mambo.[164] Afro-Cuban jazz renaissance For most of its history, Afro-Cuban jazz had been a matter of superimposing jazz phrasing over Cuban rhythms. But by the end of the 1970s, a new generation of New York City musicians had emerged who were fluent in both salsa dance music and jazz, leading to a new level of integration of jazz and Cuban rhythms. This era of creativity and vitality is best represented by the Gonzalez brothers Jerry (congas and trumpet) and Andy (bass).[165] During 1974–1976, they were members of one of Eddie Palmieri's most experimental salsa groups: salsa was the medium, but Palmieri was stretching the form in new ways. He incorporated parallel fourths, with McCoy Tyner-type vamps. The innovations of Palmieri, the Gonzalez brothers and others led to an Afro-Cuban jazz renaissance in New York City. This occurred in parallel with developments in Cuba[166] The first Cuban band of this new wave was Irakere. Their "Chékere-son" (1976) introduced a style of "Cubanized" bebop-flavored horn lines that departed from the more angular guajeo-based lines which were typical of Cuban popular music and Latin jazz up until that time. It was based on Charlie Parker's composition "Billie's Bounce", jumbled together in a way that fused clave and bebop horn lines.[167] In spite of the ambivalence of some band members towards Irakere's Afro-Cuban folkloric / jazz fusion, their experiments forever changed Cuban jazz: their innovations are still heard in the high level of harmonic and rhythmic complexity in Cuban jazz and in the jazzy and complex contemporary form of popular dance music known as timba. Afro-Brazilian jazz Naná Vasconcelos playing the Afro-Brazilian Berimbau Brazilian jazz, such as bossa nova, is derived from samba, with influences from jazz and other 20th-century classical and popular music styles. Bossa is generally moderately paced, with melodies sung in Portuguese or English, whilst the related jazz-samba is an adaptation of street samba into jazz. The bossa nova style was pioneered by Brazilians João Gilberto and Antônio Carlos Jobim and was made popular by Elizete Cardoso's recording of "Chega de Saudade" on the Canção do Amor Demais LP. Gilberto's initial releases, and the 1959 film Black Orpheus, achieved significant popularity in Latin America; this spread to North America via visiting American jazz musicians. The resulting recordings by Charlie Byrd and Stan Getz cemented bossa nova's popularity and led to a worldwide boom, with 1963's Getz/Gilberto, numerous recordings by famous jazz performers such as Ella Fitzgerald and Frank Sinatra, and the eventual entrenchment of the bossa nova style as a lasting influence in world music. Brazilian percussionists such as Airto Moreira and Naná Vasconcelos also influenced jazz internationally by introducing Afro-Brazilian folkloric instruments and rhythms into a wide variety of jazz styles, thus attracting a greater audience to them.[168][169][170] While bossa nova has been labeled as jazz by music critics, namely those from outside of Brazil, it has been rejected by many prominent bossa nova musicians such as Jobim, who once said "Bossa nova is not Brazilian jazz."[171][172] African-inspired Randy Weston Rhythm The first jazz standard composed by a non-Latino to use an overt African 12 8 cross-rhythm was Wayne Shorter's "Footprints" (1967).[173] On the version recorded on Miles Smiles by Miles Davis, the bass switches to a 4 4 tresillo figure at 2:20. "Footprints" is not, however, a Latin jazz tune: African rhythmic structures are accessed directly by Ron Carter (bass) and Tony Williams (drums) via the rhythmic sensibilities of swing. Throughout the piece, the four beats, whether sounded or not, are maintained as the temporal referent. The following example shows the 12 8 and 4 4 forms of the bass line. The slashed noteheads indicate the main beats (not bass notes), where one ordinarily taps their foot to "keep time". {        \relative c, <<         \new Staff <<            \new voice {               \clef bass \time 12/8 \key c \minor               \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 100                     \stemDown \override NoteHead.style = #'cross \repeat volta 2 { es4. es es es }        }           \new voice {               \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 100                    \time 12/8               \stemUp \repeat volta 2 { c'4 g'8~ g c4 es4.~ es4 g,8 } \bar ":|."        } >>        \new Staff <<           \new voice {               \clef bass \time 12/8 \key c \minor               \set Staff.timeSignatureFraction = 4/4               \scaleDurations 3/2 {                   \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 8 = 100                         \stemDown \override NoteHead.style = #'cross \repeat volta 2 { es,4 es es es }               }        }           \new voice \relative c' {               \time 12/8               \set Staff.timeSignatureFraction = 4/4               \scaleDurations 3/2 {                   \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 100                        \stemUp \repeat volta 2 { c,8. g'16~ g8 c es4~ es8. g,16 } \bar ":|."               }        } >>   >> } Pentatonic scales The use of pentatonic scales was another trend associated with Africa. The use of pentatonic scales in Africa probably goes back thousands of years.[174] McCoy Tyner perfected the use of the pentatonic scale in his solos,[175] and also used parallel fifths and fourths, which are common harmonies in West Africa.[176] The minor pentatonic scale is often used in blues improvisation, and like a blues scale, a minor pentatonic scale can be played over all of the chords in a blues. The following pentatonic lick was played over blues changes by Joe Henderson on Horace Silver's "African Queen" (1965).[177] Jazz pianist, theorist, and educator Mark Levine refers to the scale generated by beginning on the fifth step of a pentatonic scale as the V pentatonic scale.[178] C pentatonic scale beginning on the I (C pentatonic), IV (F pentatonic), and V (G pentatonic) steps of the scale.[clarification needed] Levine points out that the V pentatonic scale works for all three chords of the standard II–V–I jazz progression.[179] This is a very common progression, used in pieces such as Miles Davis' "Tune Up". The following example shows the V pentatonic scale over a II–V–I progression.[180] V pentatonic scale over II–V–I chord progression Accordingly, John Coltrane's "Giant Steps" (1960), with its 26 chords per 16 bars, can be played using only three pentatonic scales. Coltrane studied Nicolas Slonimsky's Thesaurus of Scales and Melodic Patterns, which contains material that is virtually identical to portions of "Giant Steps".[181] The harmonic complexity of "Giant Steps" is on the level of the most advanced 20th-century art music. Superimposing the pentatonic scale over "Giant Steps" is not merely a matter of harmonic simplification, but also a sort of "Africanizing" of the piece, which provides an alternate approach for soloing. Mark Levine observes that when mixed in with more conventional "playing the changes", pentatonic scales provide "structure and a feeling of increased space".[182] Sacred and liturgical jazz Main article: Sacred jazz As noted above, jazz has incorporated from its inception aspects of African-American sacred music including spirituals and hymns. Secular jazz musicians often performed renditions of spirituals and hymns as part of their repertoire or isolated compositions such as "Come Sunday", part of "Black and Beige Suite" by Duke Ellington. Later many other jazz artists borrowed from black gospel music. However, it was only after World War II that a few jazz musicians began to compose and perform extended works intended for religious settings and/or as religious expression. Since the 1950s, sacred and liturgical music has been performed and recorded by many prominent jazz composers and musicians.[183] The "Abyssinian Mass" by Wynton Marsalis (Blueengine Records, 2016) is a recent example. Relatively little has been written about sacred and liturgical jazz. In a 2013 doctoral dissertation, Angelo Versace examined the development of sacred jazz in the 1950s using disciplines of musicology and history. He noted that the traditions of black gospel music and jazz were combined in the 1950s to produce a new genre, "sacred jazz".[184] Versace maintained that the religious intent separates sacred from secular jazz. Most prominent in initiating the sacred jazz movement were pianist and composer Mary Lou Williams, known for her jazz masses in the 1950s and Duke Ellington. Prior to his death in 1974 in response to contacts from Grace Cathedral in San Francisco, Duke Ellington wrote three Sacred Concerts: 1965 – A Concert of Sacred Music; 1968 – Second Sacred Concert; 1973 – Third Sacred Concert. The most prominent form of sacred and liturgical jazz is the jazz mass. Although most often performed in a concert setting rather than church worship setting, this form has many examples. An eminent example of composers of the jazz mass was Mary Lou Williams. Williams converted to Catholicism in 1957, and proceeded to compose three masses in the jazz idiom.[185] One was composed in 1968 to honor the recently assassinated Martin Luther King Jr. and the third was commissioned by a pontifical commission. It was performed once in 1975 in St Patrick's Cathedral in New York City. However the Catholic Church has not embraced jazz as appropriate for worship. In 1966 Joe Masters recorded "Jazz Mass" for Columbia Records. A jazz ensemble was joined by soloists and choir using the English text of the Roman Catholic Mass.[186] Other examples include "Jazz Mass in Concert" by Lalo Schiffrin (Aleph Records, 1998, UPC 0651702632725) and "Jazz Mass" by Vince Guaraldi (Fantasy Records, 1965). In England, classical composer Will Todd recorded his "Jazz Missa Brevis" with a jazz ensemble, soloists and the St Martin's Voices on a 2018 Signum Records release, "Passion Music/Jazz Missa Brevis" also released as "Mass in Blue", and jazz organist James Taylor composed "The Rochester Mass" (Cherry Red Records, 2015).[187] In 2013, Versace put forth bassist Ike Sturm and New York composer Deanna Witkowski as contemporary exemplars of sacred and liturgical jazz.[184] Jazz fusion Main article: Jazz fusion Fusion trumpeter Miles Davis in 1989 In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the hybrid form of jazz-rock fusion was developed by combining jazz improvisation with rock rhythms, electric instruments and the highly amplified stage sound of rock musicians such as Jimi Hendrix and Frank Zappa. Jazz fusion often uses mixed meters, odd time signatures, syncopation, complex chords, and harmonies. According to AllMusic: ... until around 1967, the worlds of jazz and rock were nearly completely separate. [However, ...] as rock became more creative and its musicianship improved, and as some in the jazz world became bored with hard bop and did not want to play strictly avant-garde music, the two different idioms began to trade ideas and occasionally combine forces.[188] Miles Davis' new directions In 1969, Davis fully embraced the electric instrument approach to jazz with In a Silent Way, which can be considered his first fusion album. Composed of two side-long suites edited heavily by producer Teo Macero, this quiet, static album would be equally influential to the development of ambient music. As Davis recalls: The music I was really listening to in 1968 was James Brown, the great guitar player Jimi Hendrix, and a new group who had just come out with a hit record, "Dance to the Music", Sly and the Family Stone ... I wanted to make it more like rock. When we recorded In a Silent Way I just threw out all the chord sheets and told everyone to play off of that.[189] Two contributors to In a Silent Way also joined organist Larry Young to create one of the early acclaimed fusion albums: Emergency! (1969) by The Tony Williams Lifetime. Psychedelic-jazz Weather Report Weather Report's self-titled electronic and psychedelic Weather Report debut album caused a sensation in the jazz world on its arrival in 1971, thanks to the pedigree of the group's members (including percussionist Airto Moreira), and their unorthodox approach to music. The album featured a softer sound than would be the case in later years (predominantly using acoustic bass with Shorter exclusively playing soprano saxophone, and with no synthesizers involved), but is still considered a classic of early fusion. It built on the avant-garde experiments which Joe Zawinul and Shorter had pioneered with Miles Davis on Bitches Brew, including an avoidance of head-and-chorus composition in favor of continuous rhythm and movement – but took the music further. To emphasize the group's rejection of standard methodology, the album opened with the inscrutable avant-garde atmospheric piece "Milky Way", which featured by Shorter's extremely muted saxophone inducing vibrations in Zawinul's piano strings while the latter pedaled the instrument. DownBeat described the album as "music beyond category", and awarded it Album of the Year in the magazine's polls that year. Weather Report's subsequent releases were creative funk-jazz works.[190] Jazz-rock Although some jazz purists protested against the blend of jazz and rock, many jazz innovators crossed over from the contemporary hard bop scene into fusion. As well as the electric instruments of rock (such as electric guitar, electric bass, electric piano and synthesizer keyboards), fusion also used the powerful amplification, "fuzz" pedals, wah-wah pedals and other effects that were used by 1970s-era rock bands. Notable performers of jazz fusion included Miles Davis, Eddie Harris, keyboardists Joe Zawinul, Chick Corea, and Herbie Hancock, vibraphonist Gary Burton, drummer Tony Williams (drummer), violinist Jean-Luc Ponty, guitarists Larry Coryell, Al Di Meola, John McLaughlin, Ryo Kawasaki, and Frank Zappa, saxophonist Wayne Shorter and bassists Jaco Pastorius and Stanley Clarke. Jazz fusion was also popular in Japan, where the band Casiopea released more than thirty fusion albums. According to jazz writer Stuart Nicholson, "just as free jazz appeared on the verge of creating a whole new musical language in the 1960s ... jazz-rock briefly suggested the promise of doing the same" with albums such as Williams' Emergency! (1970) and Davis' Agharta (1975), which Nicholson said "suggested the potential of evolving into something that might eventually define itself as a wholly independent genre quite apart from the sound and conventions of anything that had gone before." This development was stifled by commercialism, Nicholson said, as the genre "mutated into a peculiar species of jazz-inflected pop music that eventually took up residence on FM radio" at the end of the 1970s.[191] Electronic music Although jazz-rock fusion reached the height of its popularity in the 1970s, the use of electronic instruments and rock-derived musical elements in jazz continued in the 1990s and 2000s. Musicians using this approach include Pat Metheny, John Abercrombie, John Scofield and the Swedish group e.s.t. Since the beginning of the 1990s, electronic music had significant technical improvements that popularized and created new possibilities for the genre. Jazz elements such as improvisation, rhythmic complexities and harmonic textures were introduced to the genre and consequently had a big impact in new listeners and in some ways kept the versatility of jazz relatable to a newer generation that did not necessarily relate to what the traditionalists call real jazz (bebop, cool and modal jazz).[192] Artists such as Squarepusher, Aphex Twin, Flying Lotus and sub genres like IDM, drum 'n' bass, jungle and techno ended up incorporating a lot of these elements.[193] Squarepusher being cited as one big influence for jazz performers drummer Mark Guiliana and pianist Brad Mehldau, showing the correlations between jazz and electronic music are a two-way street.[194] Jazz-funk Main article: Jazz-funk By the mid-1970s, the sound known as jazz-funk had developed, characterized by a strong back beat (groove), electrified sounds[195] and, often, the presence of electronic analog synthesizers. Jazz-funk also draws influences from traditional African music, Afro-Cuban rhythms and Jamaican reggae, notably Kingston bandleader Sonny Bradshaw. Another feature is the shift of emphasis from improvisation to composition: arrangements, melody and overall writing became important. The integration of funk, soul, and R&B music into jazz resulted in the creation of a genre whose spectrum is wide and ranges from strong jazz improvisation to soul, funk or disco with jazz arrangements, jazz riffs and jazz solos, and sometimes soul vocals.[196] Early examples are Herbie Hancock's Headhunters band and Miles Davis' On the Corner album, which, in 1972, began Davis' foray into jazz-funk and was, he claimed, an attempt at reconnecting with the young black audience which had largely forsaken jazz for rock and funk. While there is a discernible rock and funk influence in the timbres of the instruments employed, other tonal and rhythmic textures, such as the Indian tambora and tablas and Cuban congas and bongos, create a multi-layered soundscape. The album was a culmination of sorts of the musique concrète approach that Davis and producer Teo Macero had begun to explore in the late 1960s. Straight-ahead jazz Main articles: Straight-ahead jazz and 1980s in jazz Wynton Marsalis The 1980s saw something of a reaction against the fusion and free jazz that had dominated the 1970s. Trumpeter Wynton Marsalis emerged early in the decade, and strove to create music within what he believed was the tradition, rejecting both fusion and free jazz and creating extensions of the small and large forms initially pioneered by artists such as Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington, as well as the hard bop of the 1950s. It is debatable whether Marsalis' critical and commercial success was a cause or a symptom of the reaction against Fusion and Free Jazz and the resurgence of interest in the kind of jazz pioneered in the 1960s (particularly modal jazz and post-bop); nonetheless there were many other manifestations of a resurgence of traditionalism, even if fusion and free jazz were by no means abandoned and continued to develop and evolve. For example, several musicians who had been prominent in the fusion genre during the 1970s began to record acoustic jazz once more, including Chick Corea and Herbie Hancock. Other musicians who had experimented with electronic instruments in the previous decade had abandoned them by the 1980s; for example, Bill Evans, Joe Henderson, and Stan Getz. Even the 1980s music of Miles Davis, although certainly still fusion, adopted a far more accessible and recognizably jazz-oriented approach than his abstract work of the mid-1970s, such as a return to a theme-and-solos approach. A similar reaction[vague] took place against free jazz. According to Ted Gioia: the very leaders of the avant garde started to signal a retreat from the core principles of free jazz. Anthony Braxton began recording standards over familiar chord changes. Cecil Taylor played duets in concert with Mary Lou Williams, and let her set out structured harmonies and familiar jazz vocabulary under his blistering keyboard attack. And the next generation of progressive players would be even more accommodating, moving inside and outside the changes without thinking twice. Musicians such as David Murray or Don Pullen may have felt the call of free-form jazz, but they never forgot all the other ways one could play African-American music for fun and profit.[197] Pianist Keith Jarrett—whose bands of the 1970s had played only original compositions with prominent free jazz elements—established his so-called 'Standards Trio' in 1983, which, although also occasionally exploring collective improvisation, has primarily performed and recorded jazz standards. Chick Corea similarly began exploring jazz standards in the 1980s, having neglected them for the 1970s. In 1987, the United States House of Representatives and Senate passed a bill proposed by Democratic Representative John Conyers Jr. to define jazz as a unique form of American music, stating "jazz is hereby designated as a rare and valuable national American treasure to which we should devote our attention, support and resources to make certain it is preserved, understood and promulgated." It passed in the House on September 23, 1987, and in the Senate on November 4, 1987.[198] In 2001, Ken Burns's documentary Jazz premiered on PBS, featuring Wynton Marsalis and other experts reviewing the entire history of American jazz to that time. It received some criticism, however, for its failure to reflect the many distinctive non-American traditions and styles in jazz that had developed, and its limited representation of US developments in the last quarter of the 20th century. Neo-bop Main article: Neo-bop The emergence of young jazz talent beginning to perform in older, established musicians' groups further impacted the resurgence of traditionalism in the jazz community. In the 1970s, the groups of Betty Carter and Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers retained their conservative jazz approaches in the midst of fusion and jazz-rock, and in addition to difficulty booking their acts, struggled to find younger generations of personnel to authentically play traditional styles such as hard bop and bebop. In the late 1970s, however, a resurgence of younger jazz players in Blakey's band began to occur. This movement included musicians such as Valery Ponomarev and Bobby Watson, Dennis Irwin and James Williams. In the 1980s, in addition to Wynton and Branford Marsalis, the emergence of pianists in the Jazz Messengers such as Donald Brown, Mulgrew Miller, and later, Benny Green, bassists such as Charles Fambrough, Lonnie Plaxico (and later, Peter Washington and Essiet Essiet) horn players such as Bill Pierce, Donald Harrison and later Javon Jackson and Terence Blanchard emerged as talented jazz musicians, all of whom made significant contributions in the 1990s and 2000s. The young Jazz Messengers' contemporaries, including Roy Hargrove, Marcus Roberts, Wallace Roney and Mark Whitfield were also influenced by Wynton Marsalis's emphasis toward jazz tradition. These younger rising stars rejected avant-garde approaches and instead championed the acoustic jazz sound of Charlie Parker, Thelonious Monk and early recordings of the first Miles Davis quintet. This group of "Young Lions" sought to reaffirm jazz as a high art tradition comparable to the discipline of classical music.[199] In addition, Betty Carter's rotation of young musicians in her group foreshadowed many of New York's preeminent traditional jazz players later in their careers. Among these musicians were Jazz Messenger alumni Benny Green, Branford Marsalis and Ralph Peterson Jr., as well as Kenny Washington, Lewis Nash, Curtis Lundy, Cyrus Chestnut, Mark Shim, Craig Handy, Greg Hutchinson and Marc Cary, Taurus Mateen and Geri Allen. O.T.B. ensemble included a rotation of young jazz musicians such as Kenny Garrett, Steve Wilson, Kenny Davis, Renee Rosnes, Ralph Peterson Jr., Billy Drummond, and Robert Hurst.[200] Starting in the 1990s, a number of players from largely straight-ahead or post-bop backgrounds emerged as a result of the rise of neo-traditionalist jazz, including pianists Jason Moran and Vijay Iyer, guitarist Kurt Rosenwinkel, vibraphonist Stefon Harris, trumpeters Roy Hargrove and Terence Blanchard, saxophonists Chris Potter and Joshua Redman, clarinetist Ken Peplowski and bassist Christian McBride. Smooth jazz Main article: Smooth jazz David Sanborn, 2008 In the early 1980s, a commercial form of jazz fusion called "pop fusion" or "smooth jazz" became successful, garnering significant radio airplay in "quiet storm" time slots at radio stations in urban markets across the U.S. This helped to establish or bolster the careers of vocalists including Al Jarreau, Anita Baker, Chaka Khan, and Sade, as well as saxophonists including Grover Washington Jr., Kenny G, Kirk Whalum, Boney James, and David Sanborn. In general, smooth jazz is downtempo (the most widely played tracks are of 90–105 beats per minute), and has a lead melody-playing instrument (saxophone, especially soprano and tenor, and legato electric guitar are popular). In his Newsweek article "The Problem With Jazz Criticism",[201] Stanley Crouch considers Miles Davis' playing of fusion to be a turning point that led to smooth jazz. Critic Aaron J. West has countered the often negative perceptions of smooth jazz, stating: I challenge the prevalent marginalization and malignment of smooth jazz in the standard jazz narrative. Furthermore, I question the assumption that smooth jazz is an unfortunate and unwelcomed evolutionary outcome of the jazz-fusion era. Instead, I argue that smooth jazz is a long-lived musical style that merits multi-disciplinary analyses of its origins, critical dialogues, performance practice, and reception.[202] Acid jazz, nu jazz, and jazz rap Main articles: Acid jazz, Nu jazz, and Jazz rap Acid jazz developed in the UK in the 1980s and 1990s, influenced by jazz-funk and electronic dance music. Acid jazz often contains various types of electronic composition (sometimes including sampling or live DJ cutting and scratching), but it is just as likely to be played live by musicians, who often showcase jazz interpretation as part of their performance. Richard S. Ginell of AllMusic considers Roy Ayers "one of the prophets of acid jazz".[203] Nu jazz is influenced by jazz harmony and melodies, and there are usually no improvisational aspects. It can be very experimental in nature and can vary widely in sound and concept. It ranges from the combination of live instrumentation with the beats of jazz house (as exemplified by St Germain, Jazzanova, and Fila Brazillia) to more band-based improvised jazz with electronic elements (for example, The Cinematic Orchestra, Kobol and the Norwegian "future jazz" style pioneered by Bugge Wesseltoft, Jaga Jazzist, and Nils Petter Molvær). Jazz rap developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s and incorporates jazz influences into hip hop. In 1988, Gang Starr released the debut single "Words I Manifest", which sampled Dizzy Gillespie's 1962 "Night in Tunisia", and Stetsasonic released "Talkin' All That Jazz", which sampled Lonnie Liston Smith. Gang Starr's debut LP No More Mr. Nice Guy (1989) and their 1990 track "Jazz Thing" sampled Charlie Parker and Ramsey Lewis. The groups which made up the Native Tongues Posse tended toward jazzy releases: these include the Jungle Brothers' debut Straight Out the Jungle (1988), and A Tribe Called Quest's People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm (1990) and The Low End Theory (1991). Rap duo Pete Rock & CL Smooth incorporated jazz influences on their 1992 debut Mecca and the Soul Brother. Rapper Guru's Jazzmatazz series began in 1993 using jazz musicians during the studio recordings. Although jazz rap had achieved little mainstream success, Miles Davis' final album Doo-Bop (released posthumously in 1992) was based on hip hop beats and collaborations with producer Easy Mo Bee. Davis' ex-bandmate Herbie Hancock also absorbed hip-hop influences in the mid-1990s, releasing the album Dis Is Da Drum in 1994. The mid-2010s saw an increased influence of R&B, hip-hop, and pop music on jazz. In 2015, Kendrick Lamar released his third studio album, To Pimp a Butterfly. The album heavily featured prominent contemporary jazz artists such as Thundercat[204] and redefined jazz rap with a larger focus on improvisation and live soloing rather than simply sampling. In that same year, saxophonist Kamasi Washington released his nearly three-hour long debut, The Epic. Its hip-hop inspired beats and R&B vocal interludes was not only acclaimed by critics for being innovative in keeping jazz relevant,[205] but also sparked a small resurgence in jazz on the internet. Punk jazz and jazzcore John Zorn performing in 2006 The relaxation of orthodoxy which was concurrent with post-punk in London and New York City led to a new appreciation of jazz. In London, the Pop Group began to mix free jazz and dub reggae into their brand of punk rock.[206] In New York, No Wave took direct inspiration from both free jazz and punk. Examples of this style include Lydia Lunch's Queen of Siam,[207] Gray, the work of James Chance and the Contortions (who mixed Soul with free jazz and punk)[207] and the Lounge Lizards[207] (the first group to call themselves "punk jazz"). John Zorn took note of the emphasis on speed and dissonance that was becoming prevalent in punk rock, and incorporated this into free jazz with the release of the Spy vs. Spy album in 1986, a collection of Ornette Coleman tunes done in the contemporary thrashcore style.[208] In the same year, Sonny Sharrock, Peter Brötzmann, Bill Laswell, and Ronald Shannon Jackson recorded the first album under the name Last Exit, a similarly aggressive blend of thrash and free jazz.[209] These developments are the origins of jazzcore, the fusion of free jazz with hardcore punk. M-Base Main article: M-Base Steve Coleman in Paris, July 2004 The M-Base movement started in the 1980s, when a loose collective of young African-American musicians in New York which included Steve Coleman, Greg Osby, and Gary Thomas developed a complex but grooving[210] sound. In the 1990s, most M-Base participants turned to more conventional music, but Coleman, the most active participant, continued developing his music in accordance with the M-Base concept.[211] Coleman's audience decreased, but his music and concepts influenced many musicians, according to pianist Vijay Iver and critic Ben Ratlifff of The New York Times.[212][213] M-Base changed from a movement of a loose collective of young musicians to a kind of informal Coleman "school",[214] with a much advanced but already originally implied concept.[215] Steve Coleman's music and M-Base concept gained recognition as "next logical step" after Charlie Parker, John Coltrane, and Ornette Coleman.[216] Jazz pluralism Since the 1990s, jazz has been characterized by a pluralism in which no one style dominates, but rather a wide range of styles and genres are popular. Individual performers often play in a variety of styles, sometimes in the same performance. Pianist Brad Mehldau and The Bad Plus have explored contemporary rock music within the context of the traditional jazz acoustic piano trio, recording instrumental jazz versions of songs by rock musicians. The Bad Plus have also incorporated elements of free jazz into their music. A firm avant-garde or free jazz stance has been maintained by some players, such as saxophonists Greg Osby and Charles Gayle, while others, such as James Carter, have incorporated free jazz elements into a more traditional framework. Joan Chamorro (bass), Andrea Motis (trumpet), and Ignasi Terraza (piano) in 2018 Harry Connick Jr. began his career playing stride piano and the Dixieland jazz of his home, New Orleans, beginning with his first recording when he was 10 years old.[217] Some of his earliest lessons were at the home of pianist Ellis Marsalis.[218] Connick had success on the pop charts after recording the soundtrack to the movie When Harry Met Sally, which sold over two million copies.[217] Crossover success has also been achieved by Diana Krall, Norah Jones, Cassandra Wilson, Kurt Elling, and Jamie Cullum. Additionally, the era saw the release of recordings and videos from the previous century, such as a Just Jazz tape broadcast by a band led by Gene Ammons[219] and studio archives such as Just Coolin' by Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers.[220] Social media An internet-aided trend of 2010's jazz was that of extreme reharmonization, inspired by both virtuosic players known for their speed and rhythm such as Art Tatum, as well as players known for their ambitious voicings and chords such as Bill Evans. Supergroup Snarky Puppy adopted this trend, allowing players like Cory Henry[221] to shape the grooves and harmonies of modern jazz soloing. YouTube phenomenon Jacob Collier also gained recognition for his ability to play an incredibly large number of instruments and his ability to use microtones, advanced polyrhythms, and blend a spectrum of genres in his largely homemade production process.[222][223] Other jazz musicians gained popularity through social media during the 2010s and 2020s. These included Joan Chamorro, a bassist and bandleader based in Barcelona whose big band and jazz combo videos have received tens of millions of views on YouTube,[224] and Emmet Cohen, who broadcast a series of performances live from New York starting in March 2020.[225] See also icon Jazz portal Music portal flag United States portal Jazz (Henri Matisse) Jazz piano Jazz royalty Victorian Jazz Archive Hogan Jazz Archive International Jazz Day Bibliography of jazz Timeline of jazz education List of certified jazz recordings List of jazz festivals List of jazz genres List of jazz musicians List of jazz standards List of jazz venues List of jazz venues in the United States
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