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James Cook

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Captain James Cook
James Cook, portrait by  Sir Nathaniel Dance-Holland ,  c. 1775 ,  National Maritime Museum ,  Greenwich
Born7 November [O.S.   27 October] 1728 Marton ,  Yorkshire , England
Died14 February 1779  (aged 50) Kealakekua Bay ,  Hawaii
NationalityBritish
EducationPostgate School,  Great Ayton
OccupationExplorer, navigator, cartographer
TitleCaptain
Spouse(s) Elizabeth Batts
Children6
Parent(s)James Cook Grace Pace
Signature

Captain   James Cook   FRS   (7 November 1728[NB 1]  – 14 February 1779) was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the  Royal Navy . Cook made detailed maps of  Newfoundland   prior to making three voyages to the Pacific Ocean, during which he achieved the first recorded European contact with the eastern coastline of  Australia   and the  Hawaiian Islands , and the first recorded  circumnavigation   of  New Zealand .

Cook joined the British  merchant navy   as a teenager and joined the Royal Navy in 1755. He saw action in the  Seven Years' War , and subsequently surveyed and mapped much of the entrance to the  Saint Lawrence River during the  siege of Quebec . This helped bring Cook to the attention of the  Admiralty   and  Royal Society . This notice came at a crucial moment in both Cook's career and the direction of British overseas exploration, and led to his commission in 1766 as commander of  HM Bark Endeavour   for the first of three Pacific voyages.

In three voyages Cook sailed thousands of miles across largely uncharted areas of the globe. He mapped lands from New Zealand to Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean in greater detail and on a scale not previously achieved. As he progressed on his voyages of discovery he surveyed and named features, and recorded islands and coastlines on European maps for the first time. He displayed a combination of seamanship, superior surveying and cartographic skills, physical courage and an ability to lead men in adverse conditions.

Cook was attacked and killed in 1779 during his third exploratory voyage in the Pacific while  attempting to kidnap   Kalaniʻōpuʻu , a  Hawaiian   chief, in order to reclaim a  cutter   stolen from one of his ships. He left a legacy of scientific and geographical knowledge which was to influence his successors well into the 20th century, and numerous memorials worldwide have been dedicated to him.

Contents

   [show ] 

Early life and family

James Cook was born on 7 November 1728 (N.S. ) in the village of  Marton   in  Yorkshire   and baptised on 14 November (N.S.) in the  parish church   of  St Cuthbert , where his name can be seen in the church register.[1] [2]   He was the second of eight children of James Cook, a Scottish farm labourer from  Ednam   in  Roxburghshire , and his locally born wife, Grace Pace, from  Thornaby-on-Tees .[1] [3] [4]   In 1736, his family moved to Airey Holme farm at  Great Ayton , where his father's employer, Thomas Skottowe, paid for him to attend the local school. In 1741, after five years' schooling, he began work for his father, who had been promoted to farm manager. For leisure, he would climb a nearby hill,  Roseberry Topping , enjoying the opportunity for solitude.[5]   Cooks' Cottage , his parents' last home, which he is likely to have visited, is now in  Melbourne , Australia, having been moved from England and reassembled, brick by brick, in 1934.[6]

In 1745, when he was 16, Cook moved 20 miles (32 km) to the fishing village of  Staithes , to be apprenticed as a shop boy to grocer and  haberdasher   William Sanderson.[1]   Historians have speculated that this is where Cook first felt the lure of the sea while gazing out of the shop window.[4]

After 18 months, not proving suitable for shop work, Cook travelled to the nearby port town of  Whitby   to be introduced to friends of Sanderson's, John and Henry Walker.[6]   The Walkers, who were  Quakers , were prominent local ship-owners in the coal trade. Their house is now the  Captain Cook Memorial Museum . Cook was taken on as a merchant navy apprentice in their small fleet of vessels, plying coal along the English coast. His first assignment was aboard the  collier Freelove , and he spent several years on this and various other  coasters , sailing between the  Tyne   and London. As part of his apprenticeship, Cook applied himself to the study of  algebra ,  geometry ,  trigonometry ,  navigation   and  astronomy —all skills he would need one day to command his own ship.[4]

Mrs  Elizabeth Cook , by William Henderson, 1830

His three-year apprenticeship completed, Cook began working on trading ships in the  Baltic Sea . After passing his examinations in 1752, he soon progressed through the merchant navy ranks, starting with his promotion in that year to  mate aboard the collier  brig   Friendship .[7]   In 1755, within a month of being offered command of this vessel, he volunteered for service in the  Royal Navy , when Britain was re-arming for what was to become the  Seven Years' War . Despite the need to start back at the bottom of the naval hierarchy, Cook realised his career would advance more quickly in military service and entered the Navy at Wapping on 17 June 1755.[8]

Cook married  Elizabeth Batts   (1742–1835), the daughter of Samuel Batts,  keeper of the Bell Inn,  Wapping [9]   and one of his mentors, on 21 December 1762 at  St Margaret's Church, Barking , Essex.[10]   The couple had six children: James (1763–94), Nathaniel (1764–80, lost aboard  HMS Thunderer   which foundered with all hands in a hurricane in the West Indies), Elizabeth (1767–71), Joseph (1768–68), George (1772–72) and Hugh (1776–93), the last of whom died of scarlet fever while a student at  Christ's College, Cambridge . When not at sea, Cook lived in the  East End of London . He attended  St Paul's Church, Shadwell , where his son James was baptised. Cook has no direct descendants—all his children died before having children of their own.[11]

Start of Royal Navy career

Further information:  Great Britain in the Seven Years' War

Cook's first posting was with  HMS Eagle , serving as  able seaman   and  master's mate   under Captain Joseph Hamar for his first year aboard, and Captain  Hugh Palliser   thereafter.[12]   In October and November 1755 he took part in  Eagle' s capture of one French warship and the sinking of another, following which he was promoted to  boatswain   in addition to his other duties.[8]   His first temporary command was in March 1756 when he was briefly master of  Cruizer , a small cutter attached to  Eagle   while on patrol.[8] [13]

In June 1757 Cook formally passed his  master 's examinations at  Trinity House ,  Deptford , qualifying him to navigate and handle a ship of the King's fleet.[14]   He then joined the frigate  HMS Solebay   as master under Captain Robert Craig.[15]

Newfoundland

James Cook's 1775 chart of  Newfoundland

During the  Seven Years' War , Cook served in North America as master aboard the  fourth-rate   Navy vessel  HMS Pembroke .[16]   With others in  Pembroke ' s crew, he took part in the major amphibious assault that captured the  Fortress of Louisbourg   from the French in 1758, and in the siege of  Quebec City   in 1759. Throughout his service he demonstrated a talent for  surveying   and  cartography , and was responsible for mapping much of the entrance to the  Saint Lawrence River   during the siege, thus allowing  General Wolfe   to make his famous stealth attack during the 1759  Battle of the Plains of Abraham .[17]

Cook's surveying ability was also put to use in mapping the jagged coast of  Newfoundland   in the 1760s, aboard  HMS Grenville . He surveyed the north-west stretch in 1763 and 1764, the south coast between the  Burin Peninsula and  Cape Ray   in 1765 and 1766, and the west coast in 1767. At this time Cook employed local pilots to point out the "rocks and hidden dangers" along the south and west coasts. During the 1765 season, four pilots were engaged at a daily pay of 4 shillings each: John Beck for the coast west of "Great St Lawrence ",  Morgan Snook   for  Fortune Bay , John Dawson for Connaigre and  Hermitage Bay , and John Peck for the "Bay of Despair ".[18]

His five seasons in Newfoundland produced the first large-scale and accurate maps of the island's coasts and were the first scientific, large scale, hydrographic surveys to use precise triangulation to establish land outlines.[19]   They also gave Cook his mastery of practical surveying, achieved under often adverse conditions, and brought him to the attention of the  Admiralty   and  Royal Society   at a crucial moment both in his career and in the direction of British overseas discovery. Cook's map would be used into the 20th century—copies of it being referenced by those sailing Newfoundland's waters for 200 years.[20]

Following on from his exertions in Newfoundland, it was at this time that Cook wrote that he intended to go not only "farther than any man has been before me, but as far as I think it is possible for a man to go".[14]

Voyages of exploration

First voyage (1768–71)

Main article:  First voyage of James Cook

In 1766, the Admiralty engaged Cook to command a scientific voyage to the Pacific Ocean. The purpose of the voyage was to observe and record the  transit of Venus   across the  Sun   for the benefit of a  Royal Society   inquiry into a means of determining  longitude .[21]   Cook, at the age of 39, was promoted to  lieutenant   to grant him sufficient status to take the command.[22] [23]   For its part the Royal Society agreed that Cook would receive a one hundred guinea gratuity in addition to his Naval pay.[24]

Endeavour   replica   in  Cooktown, Queensland   harbour — anchored where the original  Endeavour   was beached for seven weeks in 1770

The expedition sailed aboard  HMS Endeavour , departing England on 26 August 1768.[25]   Cook and his crew rounded  Cape Horn   and continued westward across the Pacific to arrive at  Tahiti   on 13 April 1769, where the  observations of the Venus Transit   were made.[26]   However, the result of the observations was not as conclusive or accurate as had been hoped. Once the observations were completed, Cook opened the sealed orders which were additional instructions from the  Admiralty   for the second part of his voyage: to search the south Pacific for signs of the postulated rich southern  continent   of  Terra Australis .[27]   Cook then sailed to New Zealand and mapped the complete coastline, making only some minor errors. He then voyaged west, reaching the south-eastern coast of Australia on 19 April 1770, and in doing so his expedition became the first recorded Europeans to have encountered its eastern coastline.[NB 2]

On 23 April he made his first recorded direct observation of  indigenous Australians at  Brush Island   near  Bawley Point , noting in his journal: "...and were so near the Shore as to distinguish several people upon the Sea beach they appear'd to be of a very dark or black Colour but whether this was the real colour of their skins or the C[l]othes they might have on I know not."[28]   On 29 April Cook and crew made their first landfall on the mainland of the continent at a place now known as the  Kurnell Peninsula . Cook originally christened the area as "Stingray Bay", but later he crossed this out and named it "Botany Bay "[29]   after the unique specimens retrieved by the botanists  Joseph Banks   and  Daniel Solander . It is here that James Cook made first contact with an aboriginal tribe known as the  Gweagal .[30]

After his departure from Botany Bay he continued northwards. He stopped at Bustard Bay (now known as  Seventeen Seventy or 1770 ) at 8 o'clock on 23 May 1770. On 24 May, Cook and Banks and others went ashore. Continuing north, on 11 June a mishap occurred when HMS  Endeavour   ran aground on a shoal of the  Great Barrier Reef , and then "nursed into a river mouth on 18 June 1770".[31]   The ship was badly damaged and his voyage was delayed almost seven weeks while repairs were carried out on the beach (near the docks of modern  Cooktown, Queensland , at the mouth of the  Endeavour River ).[4]   The voyage then continued, sailing through  Torres Strait   and on 22 August Cook landed on  Possession Island , where he claimed the entire coastline that he had just explored as British territory. He returned to England via  Batavia (modern  Jakarta , Indonesia), where many in his crew succumbed to  malaria , and then the  Cape of Good Hope , arriving at the island of  Saint Helena   on 12 July 1771.[32]

Interlude

Cook's  journals   were published upon his return, and he became something of a hero among the scientific community. Among the general public, however, the aristocratic  botanist   Joseph Banks   was a greater hero.[4]   Banks even attempted to take command of Cook's second voyage, but removed himself from the voyage before it began, and  Johann Reinhold Forster   and his son  Georg Forster   were taken on as scientists for the voyage. Cook's son George was born five days before he left for his second voyage.[33]

The routes of Captain James Cook's voyages. The first voyage is shown in  red , second voyage in  green , and third voyage in  blue . The route of Cook's crew following his death is shown as a dashed blue line.

Second voyage (1772–75)

Main article:  Second voyage of James Cook

Shortly after his return from the first voyage, Cook was promoted in August 1771, to the rank of  commander .[34] [35]   In 1772 he was commissioned to lead another scientific expedition on behalf of the Royal Society, to search for the hypothetical  Terra Australis . On his first voyage, Cook had demonstrated by circumnavigating New Zealand that it was not attached to a larger landmass to the south. Although he charted almost the entire eastern coastline of Australia, showing it to be continental in size, the Terra Australis was believed to lie further south. Despite this evidence to the contrary,  Alexander Dalrymple   and others of the Royal Society still believed that a massive southern continent should exist.[36]

James Cook witnessing human sacrifice in  Tahiti   c. 1773

Cook commanded  HMS Resolution   on this voyage, while  Tobias Furneaux commanded its companion ship,  HMS Adventure . Cook's expedition circumnavigated the globe at an extreme southern  latitude , becoming one of the first to cross the  Antarctic Circle   (17 January 1773). In the Antarctic fog,  Resolution   and  Adventure   became separated. Furneaux made his way to New Zealand, where he lost some of his men during an encounter with  Māori , and eventually sailed back to Britain, while Cook continued to explore the Antarctic, reaching 71°10'S on 31 January 1774.[14]

Cook almost encountered the mainland of  Antarctica , but turned towards Tahiti to resupply his ship. He then resumed his southward course in a second fruitless attempt to find the supposed continent. On this leg of the voyage he brought a young Tahitian named  Omai , who proved to be somewhat less knowledgeable about the Pacific than  Tupaia   had been on the first voyage. On his return voyage to New Zealand in 1774, Cook landed at the  Friendly Islands ,  Easter Island ,  Norfolk Island ,  New Caledonia , and  Vanuatu .

James Cook's 1777 South-Up map of  South Georgia

Before returning to England, Cook made a final sweep across the South Atlantic from  Cape Horn   and surveyed, mapped and took possession for Britain of  South Georgia , which had been explored by the English merchant  Anthony de la Roché   in 1675. Cook also discovered and named  Clerke Rocks   and the  South Sandwich Islands   ("Sandwich Land"). He then turned north to South Africa, and from there continued back to England. His reports upon his return home put to rest the popular myth of Terra Australis.[37]

Cook's second voyage marked a successful employment of  Larcum Kendall's K1   copy of  John Harrison 's H4  marine chronometer , which enabled Cook to calculate his  longitudinal position   with much greater accuracy. Cook's log was full of praise for this time-piece which he used to make charts of the southern Pacific Ocean that were so remarkably accurate that copies of them were still in use in the mid-20th century.[38]

Upon his return, Cook was promoted to the rank of  post-captain   and given an honorary retirement from the Royal Navy, with a posting as an officer of the  Greenwich Hospital . He reluctantly accepted, insisting that he be allowed to quit the post if an opportunity for active duty should arise.[39]   His fame extended beyond the Admiralty; he was made a  Fellow of the Royal Society , and awarded the  Copley Gold Medal   for completing his second voyage without losing a man to  scurvy .[40] Nathaniel Dance-Holland   painted his portrait; he dined with  James Boswell ; he was described in the  House of Lords   as "the first navigator in Europe".[14]   But he could not be kept away from the sea. A third voyage was planned and Cook volunteered to find the  Northwest Passage . He travelled to the Pacific and hoped to travel east to the Atlantic, while a simultaneous voyage travelled the opposite route.[41]

Third voyage (1776–79)

Main article:  Third voyage of James Cook A statue of James Cook stands in  Waimea ,  Kauai   commemorating his first contact with the Hawaiian Islands at the town's harbour in January 1778

On his last voyage, Cook again commanded HMS  Resolution , while Captain  Charles Clerke   commanded  HMS Discovery . The voyage was ostensibly planned to return the  Pacific Islander ,  Omai   to Tahiti, or so the public were led to believe. The trip's principal goal was to locate a  Northwest Passage   around the American continent.[42]   After dropping Omai at Tahiti, Cook travelled north and in 1778 became the first European to begin formal contact with the  Hawaiian Islands .[43] After his initial landfall in January 1778 at  Waimea   harbour,  Kauai , Cook named the  archipelago   the "Sandwich Islands" after the  fourth Earl of Sandwich —the acting  First Lord of the Admiralty .[44]

From the Sandwich Islands Cook sailed north and then north-east to explore the west coast of North America north of the Spanish settlements in  Alta California . He made landfall on the Oregon coast at approximately 44°30′ north latitude, naming his landing point  Cape Foulweather . Bad weather forced his ships south to about  43° north   before they could begin their exploration of the coast northward.[45]   He unknowingly sailed past the  Strait of Juan de Fuca , and soon after entered  Nootka Sound   on  Vancouver Island . He anchored near the  First Nations   village of  Yuquot . Cook's two ships remained in Nootka Sound from 29 March to 26 April 1778, in what Cook called Ship Cove, now Resolution Cove,[46]   at the south end of Bligh Island, about 5 miles (8 km) east across Nootka Sound from Yuquot, lay a  Nuu-chah-nulth   village (whose chief Cook did not identify but may have been  Maquinna ). Relations between Cook's crew and the people of Yuquot were cordial if sometimes strained. In trading, the people of Yuquot demanded much more valuable items than the usual trinkets that had worked in Hawaii. Metal objects were much desired, but the lead, pewter, and tin traded at first soon fell into disrepute. The most valuable items which the British received in trade were  sea otter   pelts. During the stay, the Yuquot "hosts" essentially controlled the trade with the British vessels; the natives usually visited the British vessels at Resolution Cove instead of the British visiting the village of Yuquot at Friendly Cove.[47]

After leaving Nootka Sound, Cook explored and mapped the coast all the way to the  Bering Strait , on the way identifying what came to be known as  Cook Inlet   in Alaska. In a single visit, Cook charted the majority of the North American north-west coastline on world maps for the first time, determined the extent of Alaska, and closed the gaps in Russian (from the West) and Spanish (from the South) exploratory probes of the Northern limits of the Pacific.[14]

HMS  Resolution   and  Discovery   in Tahiti

By the second week of August 1778 Cook was through the Bering Strait, sailing into the Chukchi Sea. He headed north-east up the coast of Alaska until he was blocked by sea ice. His furthest north was 70 degrees 44 minutes. Cook then sailed west to the Siberian coast, and then south-east down the Siberian coast back to the Bering Strait. By early September 1778 he was back in the Bering Sea to begin the trip to the Sandwich (Hawaiian) Islands.[48]   He became increasingly frustrated on this voyage, and perhaps began to suffer from a stomach ailment; it has been speculated that this led to irrational behaviour towards his crew, such as forcing them to eat  walrus meat, which they had pronounced inedible.[49]

Return to Hawaii

Cook returned to Hawaii in 1779. After sailing around the archipelago for some eight weeks, he made landfall at  Kealakekua Bay , on  'Hawaii Island' , largest island in the  Hawaiian Archipelago . Cook's arrival coincided with the  Makahiki , a Hawaiian  harvest festival   of worship for the Polynesian god  Lono . Coincidentally the form of Cook's ship, HMS  Resolution , or more particularly the mast formation, sails and rigging, resembled certain significant artefacts that formed part of the season of worship.[4] [49]   Similarly, Cook's clockwise route around the island of Hawaii before making landfall resembled the processions that took place in a clockwise direction around the island during the Lono festivals. It has been argued (most extensively by  Marshall Sahlins ) that such coincidences were the reasons for Cook's (and to a limited extent, his crew's) initial  deification   by some Hawaiians who treated Cook as an incarnation of Lono.[50]   Though this view was first suggested by members of Cook's expedition, the idea that any Hawaiians understood Cook to be Lono, and the evidence presented in support of it, were challenged in 1992.[49] [51]

Death

Main article:  Kidnapping of Kalaniʻōpuʻu by Captain James Cook The Death of Captain James Cook, 14 February 1779 , an unfinished painting by  Johan Zoffany , circa 1795.[52]

After a month's stay, Cook attempted to resume his exploration of the Northern Pacific. Shortly after leaving Hawaii Island, however, the  Resolution' s foremast broke, so the ships returned to  Kealakekua Bay   for repairs.

Tensions rose, and a number of quarrels broke out between the Europeans and Hawaiians at Kealakekua Bay. An unknown group of Hawaiians took one of Cook's small boats. The evening when the cutter was taken, the people had become "insolent" even with threats to fire upon them. Cook was forced into a wild goose chase that ended with his return to the ship frustrated.[53] He attempted to kidnap and ransom the  King of Hawaiʻi ,  Kalaniʻōpuʻu .

That following day, 14 February 1779, Cook marched through the village to retrieve the King. Cook took the King (aliʻi nui ) by his own hand and led him willingly away. One of Kalaniʻōpuʻu's favorite wives,  Kanekapolei   and two chiefs approached the group as they were heading to boats. They pleaded with the king not to go until he stopped and sat where he stood. An old  kahuna   (priest), chanting rapidly while holding out a coconut, attempted to distract Cook and his men as a large crowd began to form at the shore. The king began to understand that Cook was his enemy.[53]   As Cook turned his back to help launch the boats, he was struck on the head by the villagers and then stabbed to death as he fell on his face in the  surf .[54]   He was first struck on the head with a club by a chief named  Kalaimanokahoʻowaha   or Kanaʻina (namesake of  Charles Kana'ina ) and then stabbed by one of the king's attendants, Nuaa.[55] [56]   The Hawaiians carried his body away towards the back of the town, still visible to the ship through their spyglass. Four marines, Corporal James Thomas, Private Theophilus Hinks, Private Thomas Fatchett and Private John Allen, were also killed and two others were wounded in the confrontation.[55] [57]

Aftermath

The esteem which the islanders nevertheless held for Cook caused them to retain his body. Following their practice of the time, they prepared his body with funerary rituals usually reserved for the chiefs and highest elders of the society. The body was  disembowelled , baked to facilitate  removal of the flesh , and the bones were carefully cleaned for preservation as  religious icons   in a fashion somewhat reminiscent of the treatment of European saints in the  Middle Ages . Some of Cook's remains, thus preserved, were eventually returned to his crew for a formal  burial at sea .[58]

Clerke assumed leadership of the expedition, and made a final attempt to pass through the  Bering Strait .[59]   He died of tuberculosis on 22 August 1779 and  John Gore , a veteran of Cook's first voyage, took command of  Resolution   and of the expedition.  James King   replaced Gore in command of  Discovery .[60]   The expedition returned home, reaching England in October 1780. After their arrival in England, King completed Cook's account of the voyage.[61]

David Samwell, who sailed with Cook on  Resolution , wrote of him: "He was a modest man, and rather bashful; of an agreeable lively conversation, sensible and intelligent. In temper he was somewhat hasty, but of a disposition the most friendly, benevolent and humane. His person was above six feet high: and, though a good looking man, he was plain both in dress and appearance. His face was full of expression: his nose extremely well shaped: his eyes which were small and of a brown cast, were quick and piercing; his eyebrows prominent, which gave his countenance altogether an air of austerity."[62]

Legacy

Ethnographic collections

Main article:  James Cook Collection: Australian Museum Hawaiian   feather cloak   held by the  Australian Museum Statue of Cook,  Greenwich , London John Webber 's Captain Cook, oil on canvas, 1776

The  Australian Museum   acquired its "Cook Collection" in 1894 from the  Government of New South Wales . At that time the collection consisted of 115 artefacts collected on Cook's three voyages throughout the Pacific Ocean, during the period 1768–80, along with documents and memorabilia related to these voyages. Many of the  ethnographic   artefacts were collected at a time of first contact between  Pacific Peoples   and  Europeans . In 1935 most of the documents and memorabilia were transferred to the Mitchell Library in the  State Library of New South Wales . The provenance of the collection shows that the objects remained in the hands of Cook's widow Elizabeth Cook, and her descendants, until 1886. In this year John Mackrell, the great-nephew of  Isaac Smith , Elizabeth Cook's cousin, organised the display of this collection at the request of the NSW Government at the  Colonial and Indian Exhibition   in London. In 1887 the London-based  Agent-General   for the New South Wales Government, Saul Samuel, bought John Mackrell's items and also acquired items belonging to the other relatives Reverend Canon Frederick Bennett, Mrs Thomas Langton, H. M. C. Alexander, and William Adams. The collection remained with the Colonial Secretary of NSW until 1894, when it was transferred to the Australian Museum.[63]

Navigation and science

Cook's 12 years sailing around the Pacific Ocean contributed much to European knowledge of the area. Several islands such as the  Sandwich Islands   (Hawaii) were encountered for the first time by Europeans, and his more accurate navigational charting of large areas of the Pacific was a major achievement.[64]

To create accurate maps,  latitude   and  longitude   must be accurately determined.  Navigators   had been able to work out latitude accurately for centuries by measuring the angle of the sun or a star above the horizon with an instrument such as a  backstaff   or  quadrant . Longitude was more difficult to measure accurately because it requires precise knowledge of the time difference between points on the surface of the earth. The Earth turns a full 360  degrees   relative to the sun each day. Thus longitude corresponds to time: 15 degrees every hour, or 1 degree every 4 minutes.[65]

Cook gathered accurate longitude measurements during his first voyage due to his navigational skills, the help of astronomer  Charles Green   and by using the newly published  Nautical Almanac   tables, via the  lunar distance   method—measuring the angular distance from the moon to either the sun during daytime or one of eight bright stars during night-time to determine the time at the  Royal Observatory, Greenwich , and comparing that to his local time determined via the altitude of the sun, moon, or stars. On his second voyage Cook used the K1 chronometer made by  Larcum Kendall , which was the shape of a large  pocket watch , 5 inches (13 cm) in diameter. It was a copy of the  H4   clock made by  John Harrison , which proved to be the first to keep accurate time at sea when used on the ship  Deptford's   journey to Jamaica, 1761–62.[66]

Cook succeeded in circumnavigating the world on his first voyage without losing a single man to  scurvy , an unusual accomplishment at the time. He tested several preventive measures but the most important was frequent replenishment of fresh food.[67]   It was for presenting a paper on this aspect of the voyage to the Royal Society that he was presented with the  Copley Medal   in 1776.[68] [69]   Ever the observer, Cook was the first European to have extensive contact with various people of the Pacific. He correctly postulated a link among all the Pacific peoples, despite their being separated by great ocean stretches (see  Malayo-Polynesian languages ). Cook theorised that Polynesians originated from Asia, which scientist  Bryan Sykes   later verified.[70]   In New Zealand the coming of Cook is often used to signify the onset of colonisation.[4] [6]

Cook carried several scientists on his voyages; they made significant observations and discoveries. Two botanists,  Joseph Banks   and Swede  Daniel Solander , were on the first voyage. The two collected over 3,000 plant species.[71]   Banks subsequently strongly promoted British settlement of Australia.[72] [73]

Artists also sailed on Cook's first voyage.  Sydney Parkinson   was heavily involved in documenting the botanists' findings, completing 264 drawings before his death near the end of the voyage. They were of immense scientific value to British botanists.[4] [74]   Cook's second expedition included  William Hodges , who produced notable  landscape paintings   of  Tahiti ,  Easter Island , and other locations.

Several officers who served under Cook went on to distinctive accomplishments.  William Bligh , Cook's sailing master, was given command of  HMS Bounty   in 1787 to sail to Tahiti and return with  breadfruit . Bligh is most known for the  mutiny of his crew   which resulted in his being set adrift in 1789. He later became  governor of New South Wales , where he was the subject of another mutiny—the  Rum Rebellion   was the only successful armed takeover of an Australian government.[75] George Vancouver , one of Cook's  midshipmen , led a  voyage of exploration to the Pacific Coast of North America   from 1791 to 1794.[76]   In honour of his former commander, Vancouver's ship was named  Discovery .  George Dixon , who sailed under Cook on his third expedition, later commanded his own.[77]   A lieutenant under Cook,  Henry Roberts , spent many years after that voyage preparing the detailed charts that went into Cook's posthumous Atlas, published around 1784.

Cook's contributions to knowledge were internationally recognised during his lifetime. In 1779, while the  American colonies were  fighting Britain for their independence ,  Benjamin Franklin   wrote to captains of colonial warships at sea, recommending that if they came into contact with Cook's vessel, they were to "not consider her an enemy, nor suffer any plunder to be made of the effects contained in her, nor obstruct her immediate return to England by detaining her or sending her into any other part of Europe or to America; but that you treat the said Captain Cook and his people with all civility and kindness ... as common friends to mankind."[78]   Unknown to Franklin, Cook had met his death a month before this  safe conduct   "passport" was written.

Cook's voyages were involved in another unusual first. The first recorded circumnavigation of the world by an animal was by Cook's goat, who made that memorable journey twice; the first time on HMS  Dolphin , under  Samuel Wallis , and then aboard  Endeavour . When they returned to England, Cook had the goat presented with a silver collar engraved with lines from  Samuel Johnson :  Perpetui, ambita bis terra, praemia lactis Haec habet altrici Capra secunda Jovis.   ("In fame scarce second to the nurse of Jove,/ This Goat, who twice the world had traversed round,/Deserving both her master's care and love,/Ease and perpetual pasture now has found."[79] ) She was put to pasture on Cook's farm outside London, and was reportedly admitted to the privileges of the  Royal Naval Hospital   at Greenwich. Cook's journal recorded the date of the goat's death: 28 March 1772.[80]

Memorials

Memorial to James Cook and family in  St Andrew the Great , Cambridge

A US coin, the 1928 Hawaiian Sesquicentennial  half dollar   carries Cook's image. Minted for the 150th anniversary of his discovery of the islands, its low mintage (10,008) has made this example of  Early United States commemorative coins   both scarce and expensive.[81]   The  site where he was killed in Hawaii   was marked in 1874 by a white obelisk set on 25 square feet (2.3 m2) of chained-off beach. This land, although in Hawaii, was deeded to the United Kingdom.[82]   A nearby town is named  Captain Cook, Hawaii ; several Hawaiian businesses also carry his name. The  Apollo 15   Command/Service Module   Endeavour   was named after Cook's ship,  HMS Endeavour ,[83]   as was the  Space Shuttle Endeavour .[84]   Another shuttle,  Discovery , was named after Cook's  HMS Discovery .[85]

Blue plaque   for Captain James Cook, at 326 The Highway in  Shadwell , East London, England

The first institution of higher education in North Queensland, Australia was named after him, with  James Cook University opening in  Townsville   in 1970.[86]   In Australian  rhyming slang   the expression "Captain Cook " means "look ".[87] Numerous institutions, landmarks and place names reflect the importance of Cook's contributions, including the  Cook Islands , the  Cook Strait ,  Cook Inlet , and the  Cook crater   on the Moon.[88] Aoraki/Mount Cook , the highest summit in New Zealand, is named for him.[89] Another  Mount Cook   is on the border between the US state of  Alaska   and the Canadian  Yukon   Territory, and is designated Boundary Peak 182 as one of the official  Boundary Peaks   of the  Hay–Herbert Treaty .[90]   A life-size statue of Cook upon a column stands in a park in the centre of Sydney. A large aquatic monument is planned for Cook's landing place at  Botany Bay , Sydney.[91]

One of the earliest monuments to Cook in the United Kingdom is located at  The Vache , erected in 1780 by Admiral  Hugh Palliser , a contemporary of Cook and one-time owner of the estate.[92]   A huge obelisk was built in 1827 as a monument to Cook on  Easby Moor   overlooking his boyhood village of  Great Ayton ,[93]   along with a smaller monument at the former location of Cook's cottage.[94]   There is also a monument to Cook in the church of  St Andrew the Great ,  St Andrew's Street, Cambridge , where his sons Hugh, a student at Christ's College, and James were buried. Cook's widow Elizabeth was also buried in the church and in her will left money for the memorial's upkeep. The 250th anniversary of Cook's birth was marked at the site of his birthplace in  Marton , by the opening of the  Captain Cook Birthplace Museum , located within  Stewart Park   (1978). A granite vase just to the south of the museum marks the approximate spot where he was born.[95] Tributes also abound in post-industrial  Middlesbrough , including a primary school,[96]   shopping square[97]   and the  Bottle 'O Notes , a public artwork by  Claes Oldenburg , that was erected in the town's Central Gardens in 1993. Also named after Cook is the  James Cook University Hospital , a major teaching hospital which opened in 2003 with a railway station serving it called  James Cook   opening in 2014.[98]   The Royal Research Ship  RRS  James Cook   was built in 2006 to replace the  RRS  Charles Darwin   in the UK's Royal Research Fleet,[99]   and  Stepney Historical Trust   placed a plaque on Free Trade Wharf in the Highway, Shadwell to commemorate his life in the East End of London. In 2002 Cook was placed at number 12 in the  BBC 's poll of the  100 Greatest Britons .[100]

  • Condition: Used
  • Condition: EXCELLENT OR BETTER MUSEUM QUALITY CONDITION
  • Antique: Yes
  • Type: Photograph
  • Year of Production: Circa 1845
  • Size: 5 7/8 x 7 1/8 in.
  • Image Color: Black & White
  • Theme: Architecture
  • Time Period Manufactured: Circa 1960s
  • Production Technique: Gelatin-Silver Print
  • Subject: ARCHITECTURE

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