Eddie Jefferson Jazz Lyricit Vocalist Photo By Leni Sinclair Bassist Fantastic B

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Seller: memorabilia111 ✉️ (808) 100%, Location: Ann Arbor, Michigan, US, Ships to: US & many other countries, Item: 176307477490 EDDIE JEFFERSON JAZZ LYRICIT VOCALIST PHOTO BY LENI SINCLAIR BASSIST FANTASTIC B. AN EXTREMELY RARE APPROXIMATELY 5 X 7 INCH PHOTO OF JAZZ LEGEND EDDIE JEFFERSON BY LENI SINCLAIR. PHOTO IS IN FAIR SHAPE Eddie Jefferson was an American jazz vocalist and lyricist. He is credited as an innovator of vocalese, a musical style in which lyrics are set to an instrumental composition or solo. Jefferson himself claims that his main influence was Leo Watson.
Eddie Jefferson (August 3, 1918 – May 9, 1979)[1] was an American jazz vocalist and lyricist. He is credited as an innovator of vocalese, a musical style in which lyrics are set to an instrumental composition or solo. Jefferson himself claims that his main influence was Leo Watson. Perhaps Jefferson's best-known song is "Moody's Mood for Love" which was recorded in 1952, though two years later a recording by King Pleasure catapulted the contrafact into wide popularity (King Pleasure even cites Jefferson as a personal influence). Jefferson's recordings of Charlie Parker's "Parker's Mood" and Horace Silver's "Filthy McNasty" were also hits.[2] Biography Jefferson was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States.[3] One of his most notable recordings, "So What", combined the lyrics of artist Christopher Acemandese Hall with the music of Miles Davis to highlight his skills, and enabled him to turn a phrase, into his style he calls jazz vocalese.[1] Jefferson's last recorded performance was at the Joe Segal's Jazz Showcase in Chicago and was released on video by Rhapsody Films. He shared the stand with Richie Cole (alto sax), John Campbell (piano), Kelly Sill (bass) and Joel Spencer (drums). The performance was part of a tour that Jefferson and Cole led together. Their opening night in Detroit, Michigan, was at Baker's Keyboard Lounge, a jazz club built in the 1930s that has played host to famous musicians including those who spanned the genre with artists as diverse as Dexter Gordon and Sonny Stitt. A previously unreleased live recording from July 1976 was released in August 2009 as Eddie Jefferson At Ali's Alley, with the quintet of drummer Rashied Ali featured. Eddie Jefferson was shot and killed outside Baker's Keyboard Lounge on May 8, 1979, aged 60.[1] He had left the club with fellow bandleader Cole around 1:35 a.m. and was shot while walking out of the building. A late-model Lincoln Continental was spotted speeding away from the scene. The driver was later picked up by Detroit police and identified as a disgruntled dancer with whom Jefferson once worked and had fired from a gig.[4] The suspect was charged with murder, but was later acquitted in a Detroit criminal trial. The Manhattan Transfer honored both Jefferson and Coleman Hawkins in their vocal version of "Body and Soul" on their album Extensions in 1979. Discography Letter from Home (Riverside, 1962) Body and Soul (Prestige, 1968)[5] Come Along with Me (Prestige, 1969) The Bebop Singers with Annie Ross, Joe Carroll (Prestige, 1970) Things Are Getting Better (Muse, 1974) Still on the Planet (Muse, 1976) The Jazz Singer (Inner City, 1976)[6] The Main Man (Inner City, 1977) The Live-Liest (Muse, 1979) With Richie Cole New York Afternoon (Muse, 1977) Alto Madness (Muse, 1977) Keeper of the Flame (Muse, 1979) Live at the Douglas Beach House 1978 (Just Jazz, 1995) Hollywood Madness (Muse, 1979) With Dexter Gordon Great Encounters (Columbia , 1979) With James Moody Moody's Workshop (Prestige, 1954) Hi Fi Party (Prestige, 1955) Flute 'n the Blues (Argo, 1956) Moody's Mood for Love (Argo, 1957) Hey! It's James Moody (Argo, 1959) Cookin' the Blues (Argo, 1964) Don't Look Away Now! (Prestige, 1969) James Moody's Heritage Hum (Perception, 1971) With Frank Wright Kevin, My Dear Son (Recorded: October 1978) (Chiaroscuro, 1979)[7] See also List of homicides in Michigan The Bank Dick (for the "Filthy McNasty" character) The founder of vocalese (putting recorded solos to words), Eddie Jefferson did not have a great voice, but he was one of the top jazz singers, getting the maximum out of what he had. He started out working as a tap dancer, but by the late '40s was singing and writing lyrics. A live session from 1949 (released on Spotlite) finds him pioneering vocalese by singing his lyrics to "Parker's Mood" and Lester Young's solo on "I Cover the Waterfront." However, his classic lyrics to "Moody's Mood for Love" were recorded first by King Pleasure (1952), who also had a big hit with his version of "Parker's Mood." Jefferson had his first studio recording that year (which included Coleman Hawkins' solo on "Body and Soul"), before working with James Moody (1953-1957). Although he recorded on an occasional basis in the 1950s and '60s, his contributions to the idiom seemed to be mostly overlooked until the 1970s. Jefferson worked with Moody again (1968-1973), and during his last few years often performed with Richie Cole. He was shot to death outside of a Detroit club in 1979. Eddie Jefferson, who also wrote memorable lyrics to "Jeannine," "Lady Be Good," "So What," "Freedom Jazz Dance," and even "Bitches' Brew," recorded for Savoy, Prestige, a single for Checker, Inner City, and Muse; his final sides appeared in 1999 under the title Vocal Ease. The late, great Eddie Jefferson is credited with inventing vocalese, a technique where a vocalist sings original text to a previously recorded instrumental composition or solo. The term is a pun on vocalise, a vocal exercise common in classical music. Jefferson's best known vocalese was his lyrics to the swingin' "Moody's Mood For Love," by James Moody, a.k.a. Moody. Jefferson worked with Moody from 1953 to 1957 and again from 1968 to 1973. Jefferson explained the song's evolution in a July 1976 Cadence Magazine interview: "King Pleasure heard me in Cincinnati when I was working at a place called the Cotton Club with Jack McDuff. He was a bass player then and he switched to piano — later organ. When we got off from work we used to go upstairs and jam, and Pleasure would be around and he heard 'Moody's Mood For Love', and he went to New York and somebody heard him singin' it. Weinstock, I believe, recorded him. Then when they heard what the source was, they asked him to come back and do some more. He said 'I don't have anymore, Eddie Jefferson is the writer of that, a dancer in Pittsburgh.' They sent to Pittsburgh and got me. If they hadn't heard him do it, I might not have ever been heard of in this field. So I attribute to King Pleasure one of the reasons why I'm out here today, doin' this." James Moody offers his historical encounter with Jefferson: "I went to an engagement in Cleveland, Ohio, and word was out that I was looking for a singer. Eddie Jefferson came and tried out and sang 'Moody's Mood For Love' and I said 'You got the gig.' Later on I found out he was the one who wrote the lyrics, not King Pleasure. That's how we met. I had a double-plus because I found out he wrote other lyrics to solos, things that Miles did and others." Jefferson's other lyrical contributions included "Parker's Mood," "Filthy McNasty," "Freedom Jazz Dance," "So What," "Body and Soul," and many more. "He was a wonderful person," Moody confides. "He would put on his bathrobe, get a quart of ice cream, get in bed and turn on his Victrola and write lyrics." But it was the magic of "Moody's Mood For Love" that made history. "The instrumental that I did on alto saxophone in Sweden in 1949 became a hit," says Moody. "Eddie put lyrics to it and then that became a hit in 1952. So, I had to have someone sing it. Everywhere we played was jam-packed." Eddie Jefferson was born August 3, 1918 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and died tragically after a gig with saxophonist Richie Cole, when he was shot outside of a Detroit club on May 9, 1979 by a disgruntled dancer with whom he had once worked. Jefferson's as a dancer and vocalist paved the way for singers to come. "My dear friend and father Eddie Jefferson was the greatest jazz singer to ever be born on this earth," said Cole. "He created an entirely different style of jazz ... he's the founder or Godfather of vocalese. I will miss his passion of jazz and friendship forever." Saxophonist Charles McPherson played on Jefferson's 1969 LP Come Along With Me (Prestige Records). It seems that Jefferson had a soft spot for the saxophone. McPherson explains: "Sax is such a prominent, high-profile jazz instrument, and some of the great innovators were saxophone players and great soloists. There are great trumpet players, too. But maybe Eddie did align himself more with the sax. The sax certainly sounds like the human voice more than some other instruments. So maybe that's a subtle reason for why he worked with saxophone players." Pianist Eric Reed brings his trio along with vocalists Carla Cook and Allan Harris to The Allen Room at Jazz at Lincoln Center on November 9 and 10 to celebrate "The Genius of Eddie Jefferson." (For more information, visit www.jalc.org.) "I've always been blown away by Eddie Jefferson's work," says Reed. "I first became aware of it from a Dexter Gordon recording called Great Encounters. Eddie Jefferson created lyrics to a Lester Young solo on 'Its Only A Paper Moon' and renamed it 'Lester's Trip To The Moon.' More than the lyrics he sang, I was blown away with the actual quality and tone of his voice. It was very unusual and so different than the typical crooners — people like Nat Cole, Al Hibbler or Johnny Hartman. That's what drew me to him." "One of Jefferson's themes was about love and some woman that had done him wrong," Reed muses. "The way he was able to fit the words in such a hip way was pretty incredible. He didn't really get the kind of credit that he should have…that could've been for many numbers of reasons. It could've been that he was from the Midwest, and sometimes it's just not in the cards — even as great as they are. Would we know as much about Art Tatum as we do had he not left Toledo?" DETROIT, May 9 (AP) — Eddie Jefferson, the vocalist regarded by critics as one of the great innovators of modern jazz, was shot to death early today as he left a popular nightclub where he had just finished an opening engagement. The police said that Mr. Jefferson, who was 60 years old, of Queens, N.Y., was shot in the chest as he emerged from Baker's Keyboard Lounge. A suspect was arrested today and scheduled for arraignment tomorrow. The police would not identify the man but said he was an acquaintance of Mr. Jet. ferson. Witnesses said that Mr. Jefferson was leaving the club with his road manager and a woman friend when a car pulled up and the driver, apparently alone in the car, fired four shotgun blasts and sped away. ADVERTISEMENT SKIP ADVERTISEMENT Lyricist From Pittsburgh Eddie Jefferson, who was born in Pittsburgh on Aug. 3, 1918, started in show business as a singer and dancer, appearing at the 1933 World”s Fair in Chicago with the original Zephyrs. But he was best known for fitting lyrics to improvised instrumental jazz solos. The lyric setting that established Mr. Jefferson”s reputation was based on James Moody”s saxophone solo on “I”m in the Mood for Love,” although initially the lyrics, known as “Moody”s Mood for Love,” was associated with another singer, King Pleasure. Mr. Pleasure, who had heard Mr. Jefferson sing his lyric at the Cotton Club in Cincinnati, brought it to New York where he sang it at the Apollo Theater and recorded it. Mr. Jefferson had ambivalent feelings about this preemption of his song. “He copped those lyrics,” he told Carol Crawford in an interview in “Jazz” magazine. “But in a way it opened it up for me.” Started as Scat Singer Mr. Jefferson went on to write and sing lyrics written to solos by Miles Davis. Lester Young, Coleman Hawkins, Eddie Harris and other notable jazz soloists. He had started out as a scat singer but a conversation with Leo Watson, a noted scat singer of the 1930's who performed with the Spirits of Rhythm and the bands of Gene Krupa and Artie Shaw, led Mr. Jefferson to expand the traditional scat technique. “He had taken scat about as far as could go,” Mr. Jefferson told Miss Crawford, referring to Mr. Watson. “And he advised me to sing lyrics. You know, like you could still improvise but do it with lyrics.” Editors’ Picks Cosmic Forecast: Blurry With a Chance of Orbital Chaos In Japan, a Place for a Famous Artistic Director to Hide by the Sea Do Birds Dream? SKIP ADVERTISEMENT ADVERTISEMENT SKIP ADVERTISEMENT The technique was later popularized by the team of Lambert, Hendricks and Ross. Mr. Jefferson worked frequently with Mr. Moody's group in the 50's and 60's and, in the 70's, he toured with Roy Brooks’ group, Artistic Truth. Mr. Jefferson's last appearance in New York was at the Carnegie Hall, with Sarah Vaughan on March 23. One of the most important figures in twentieth century American music, Charles Mingus was a virtuoso bass player, accomplished pianist, bandleader and composer. Born on a military base in Nogales, Arizona in 1922 and raised in Watts, California, his earliest musical influences came from the church– choir and group singing– and from “hearing Duke Ellington over the radio when [he] was eight years old.” He studied double bass and composition in a formal way (five years with H. Rheinshagen, principal bassist of the New York Philharmonic, and compositional techniques with the legendary Lloyd Reese) while absorbing vernacular music from the great jazz masters, first-hand. His early professional experience, in the 40’s, found him touring with bands like Louis Armstrong, Kid Ory and Lionel Hampton. Eventually he settled in New York where he played and recorded with the leading musicians of the 1950’s– Charlie Parker, Miles Davis, Bud Powell, Art Tatum and Duke Ellington himself. One of the few bassists to do so, Mingus quickly developed as a leader of musicians. He was also an accomplished pianist who could have made a career playing that instrument. By the mid-50’s he had formed his own publishing and recording companies to protect and document his growing repertoire of original music. He also founded the “Jazz Workshop,” a group which enabled young composers to have their new works performed in concert and on recordings. Mingus soon found himself at the forefront of the avant-garde. His recordings bear witness to the extraordinarily creative body of work that followed. They include: Pithecanthropus Erectus, The Clown, Tijuana Moods, Mingus Dynasty, Mingus Ah Um, The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady, Cumbia and Jazz Fusion, Let My Children Hear Music. He recorded over a hundred albums and wrote over three hundred scores. Although he wrote his first concert piece, “Half-Mast Inhibition,” when he was seventeen years old, it was not recorded until twenty years later by a 22-piece orchestra with Gunther Schuller conducting. It was the presentation of “Revelations” which combined jazz and classical idioms, at the 1955 Brandeis Festival of the Creative Arts, that established him as one of the foremost jazz composers of his day. In 1971 Mingus was awarded the Slee Chair of Music and spent a semester teaching composition at the State University of New York at Buffalo. In the same year his autobiography, Beneath the Underdog, was published by Knopf. In 1972 it appeared in a Bantam paperback and was reissued after his death, in 1980, by Viking/Penguin and again by Pantheon Books, in 1991. In 1972 he also re-signed with Columbia Records. His music was performed frequently by ballet companies, and Alvin Ailey choreographed an hour program called “The Mingus Dances” during a 1972 collaboration with the Robert Joffrey Ballet Company. He toured extensively throughout Europe, Japan, Canada, South America and the United States until the end of 1977 when he was diagnosed as having a rare nerve disease, Amyotropic Lateral Sclerosis. He was confined to a wheelchair, and although he was no longer able to write music on paper or compose at the piano, his last works were sung into a tape recorder. From the 1960’s until his death in 1979 at age 56, Mingus remained in the forefront of American music. When asked to comment on his accomplishments, Mingus said that his abilities as a bassist were the result of hard work but that his talent for composition came from God. Mingus received grants from the National Endowment for the Arts, The Smithsonian Institute, and the Guggenheim Foundation (two grants). He also received an honorary degree from Brandeis and an award from Yale University. At a memorial following Mingus’ death, Steve Schlesinger of the Guggenheim Foundation commented that Mingus was one of the few artists who received two grants and added: “I look forward to the day when we can transcend labels like jazz and acknowledge Charles Mingus as the major American composer that he is.” The New Yorker wrote: “For sheer melodic and rhythmic and structural originality, his compositions may equal anything written in western music in the twentieth century.” He died in Mexico on January 5, 1979, and his wife, Sue Graham Mingus, scattered his ashes in the Ganges River in India. Both New York City and Washington, D.C. honored him posthumously with a “Charles Mingus Day.” After his death, the National Endowment for the Arts provided grants for a Mingus foundation created by Sue Mingus called “Let My Children Hear Music” which catalogued all of Mingus’ works. The microfilms of these works were then given to the Music Division of the New York Public Library where they are currently available for study and scholarship – a first for jazz.  Sue Mingus has founded three working repertory bands called the Mingus Dynasty, Mingus Orchestra, and the Mingus Big Band, which continue to perform his music. Biographies of Charles Mingus include Mingus by Brian Priestley, Mingus/Mingus by Janet Coleman and Al Young, Myself When I Am Real by Gene Santoro, and Tonight at Noon, a memoir by Sue Mingus. Mingus’ masterwork, “Epitaph,” a composition which is more than 4000 measures long and which requires two hours to perform, was discovered during the cataloguing process. With the help of a grant from the Ford Foundation, the score and instrumental parts were copied, and the piece itself was premiered by a 30-piece orchestra, conducted by Gunther Schuller, in a concert produced by Sue Mingus at Alice Tully Hall on June 3, 1989, ten years after Mingus’ death. The New Yorker wrote that “Epitaph” represents the first advance in jazz composition since Duke Ellington’s “Black, Brown, and Beige,” which was written in 1943. The New York Times said it ranked with the “most memorable jazz events of the decade.” Convinced that it would never be performed in his lifetime, Mingus called his work “Epitaph,” declaring that he wrote it “for my tombstone.” The Library of Congress purchased the Charles Mingus Collection, a major acquisition, in 1993; this included autographed manuscripts, photographs, literary manuscripts, correspondence, and tape recordings of interviews, broadcasts, recording sessions, and Mingus composing at the piano. Sue Mingus has published a number of educational books through Hal Leonard Publishing, including Charles Mingus: More Than a Fake Book, Charles Mingus: More Than a Play-Along, Charles Mingus: Easy Piano Solos, many big band charts— including the Simply Mingus set of big band music charts– and a Mingus guitar book. Charles Mingus Jr. (April 22, 1922 – January 5, 1979) was an American jazz double bassist, pianist, composer and bandleader. His compositions retained the hot and soulful feel of hard bop, drawing heavily from black gospel music and blues, while sometimes containing elements of Third Stream, free jazz, and classical music. He once cited Duke Ellington and church as his main influences. Mingus espoused collective improvisation, similar to the old New Orleans jazz parades, paying particular attention to how each band member interacted with the group as a whole. In creating his bands, he looked not only at the skills of the available musicians, but also their personalities. Many musicians passed through his bands and later went on to impressive careers. He recruited talented and sometimes little-known artists, whom he utilized to assemble unconventional instrumental configurations. As a performer, Mingus was a pioneer in double bass technique, widely recognized as one of the instrument's most proficient players. Nearly as well known as his ambitious music was Mingus's often fearsome temperament, which earned him the nickname "The Angry Man of Jazz". His refusal to compromise his musical integrity led to many onstage eruptions, exhortations to musicians, and dismissals.[1] Because of his brilliant writing for midsize ensembles, and his catering to and emphasizing the strengths of the musicians in his groups, Mingus is often considered the heir of Duke Ellington, for whom he expressed great admiration. Indeed, Dizzy Gillespie had once claimed Mingus reminded him "of a young Duke", citing their shared "organizational genius".[2] Mingus' compositions continue to be played by contemporary musicians ranging from the repertory bands Mingus Big Band, Mingus Dynasty, and Mingus Orchestra, to the high school students who play the charts and compete in the Charles Mingus High School Competition.[3] Gunther Schuller has suggested that Mingus should be ranked among the most important American composers, jazz or otherwise.[4] In 1988, a grant from the National Endowment for the Arts[5] made possible the cataloging of Mingus compositions, which were then donated to the Music Division of the New York Public Library[6] for public use. In 1993, The Library of Congress acquired Mingus's collected papers—including scores, sound recordings, correspondence and photos—in what they described as "the most important acquisition of a manuscript collection relating to jazz in the Library's history".[7] Contents  [hide]  1 Biography 1.1 Early life and career 1.2 Based in New York 1.3 Pithecanthropus Erectus among other recordings 1.4 Mingus Ah Um and other works 1.5 The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady and other Impulse! albums 1.6 Changes 1.7 Later career and death 2 Personality and temper 3 Legacy 3.1 The Mingus Big Band 3.2 Epitaph 3.3 Autobiography 3.4 Cover versions 3.5 Awards and honors 4 Discography 5 Filmography 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Biography[edit] Early life and career[edit] Charles Mingus was born in Nogales, Arizona. He was largely raised in the Watts area of Los Angeles. His maternal grandfather was a Chinese British subject from Hong Kong, and his maternal grandmother was black. Mingus was the third great-grandson of the family's founding partiarch who was, by most accounts, a German immigrant. His ancestors included German American, African American, British, Chinese, and Native American.[8][9][10] In Mingus's autobiography Beneath the Underdog his mother was described as "the daughter of an Englishman and a Chinese woman", and his father was the son "of a black farm worker and a Swedish woman". Charles Mingus Sr. claims to have been raised by his mother and her husband as a white person until he was fourteen, when his mother revealed to her family that the child's true father was a black slave, after which he had to run away from his family and live on his own. The autobiography doesn't confirm whether Charles Mingus Sr. or Mingus himself believed this story was true, or whether it was merely an embellished version of the Mingus family's lineage.[11] His mother allowed only church-related music in their home, but Mingus developed an early love for other music, especially Duke Ellington. He studied trombone, and later cello, although he was unable to follow the cello professionally because, at the time, it was nearly impossible for a black musician to make a career of classical music, and the cello was not yet accepted as a jazz instrument. Despite this, Mingus was still attached to the cello; as he studied bass with Red Callender in the late 1930s, Callender even commented that the cello was still Mingus's main instrument. In Beneath the Underdog, Mingus states that he did not actually start learning bass until Buddy Collette accepted him into his swing band under the stipulation that he be the band's bass player.[11] Due to a poor education, the young Mingus could not read musical notation quickly enough to join the local youth orchestra. This had a serious impact on his early musical experiences, leaving him feeling ostracized from the classical music world. These early experiences, in addition to his lifelong confrontations with racism, were reflected in his music, which often focused on themes of racism, discrimination and (in)justice.[10] Much of the cello technique he learned was applicable to double bass when he took up the instrument in high school. He studied for five years with Herman Reinshagen, principal bassist of the New York Philharmonic, and compositional techniques with Lloyd Reese.[12] Throughout much of his career, he played a bass made in 1927 by the German maker Ernst Heinrich Roth. Beginning in his teen years, Mingus was writing quite advanced pieces; many are similar to Third Stream because they incorporate elements of classical music. A number of them were recorded in 1960 with conductor Gunther Schuller, and released as Pre-Bird, referring to Charlie "Bird" Parker; Mingus was one of many musicians whose perspectives on music were altered by Parker into "pre- and post-Bird" eras. Mingus gained a reputation as a bass prodigy. His first major professional job was playing with former Ellington clarinetist Barney Bigard. He toured with Louis Armstrong in 1943, and by early 1945 was recording in Los Angeles in a band led by Russell Jacquet, which also included Teddy Edwards, Maurice Simon, Bill Davis, and Chico Hamilton, and in May that year, in Hollywood, again with Teddy Edwards, in a band led by Howard McGhee.[13] He then played with Lionel Hampton's band in the late 1940s; Hampton performed and recorded several of Mingus's pieces. A popular trio of Mingus, Red Norvo and Tal Farlow in 1950 and 1951 received considerable acclaim, but Mingus's race caused problems with club owners and he left the group. Mingus was briefly a member of Ellington's band in 1953, as a substitute for bassist Wendell Marshall. Mingus's notorious temper led to him being one of the few musicians personally fired by Ellington (Bubber Miley and drummer Bobby Durham are among the others), after an on-stage fight between Mingus and Juan Tizol.[14] Also in the early 1950s, before attaining commercial recognition as a bandleader, Mingus played gigs with Charlie Parker, whose compositions and improvisations greatly inspired and influenced him. Mingus considered Parker the greatest genius and innovator in jazz history, but he had a love-hate relationship with Parker's legacy. Mingus blamed the Parker mythology for a derivative crop of pretenders to Parker's throne. He was also conflicted and sometimes disgusted by Parker's self-destructive habits and the romanticized lure of drug addiction they offered to other jazz musicians. In response to the many sax players who imitated Parker, Mingus titled a song, "If Charlie Parker were a Gunslinger, There'd be a Whole Lot of Dead Copycats" (released on Mingus Dynasty as "Gunslinging Bird"). Based in New York[edit] In 1952 Mingus co-founded Debut Records with Max Roach so he could conduct his recording career as he saw fit. The name originated from his desire to document unrecorded young musicians. Despite this, the best-known recording the company issued was of the most prominent figures in bebop. On May 15, 1953, Mingus joined Dizzy Gillespie, Parker, Bud Powell, and Roach for a concert at Massey Hall in Toronto, which is the last recorded documentation of Gillespie and Parker playing together. After the event, Mingus chose to overdub his barely audible bass part back in New York; the original version was issued later. The two 10" albums of the Massey Hall concert (one featured the trio of Powell, Mingus and Roach) were among Debut Records' earliest releases. Mingus may have objected to the way the major record companies treated musicians, but Gillespie once commented that he did not receive any royalties "for years and years" for his Massey Hall appearance. The records though, are often regarded as among the finest live jazz recordings. One story has it that Mingus was involved in a notorious incident while playing a 1955 club date billed as a "reunion" with Parker, Powell, and Roach. Powell, who suffered from alcoholism and mental illness (possibly exacerbated by a severe police beating and electroshock treatments), had to be helped from the stage, unable to play or speak coherently. As Powell's incapacitation became apparent, Parker stood in one spot at a microphone, chanting "Bud Powell...Bud Powell..." as if beseeching Powell's return. Allegedly, Parker continued this incantation for several minutes after Powell's departure, to his own amusement and Mingus's exasperation. Mingus took another microphone and announced to the crowd, "Ladies and Gentleman, please don't associate me with any of this. This is not jazz. These are sick people."[15] This was Parker's last public performance; about a week later he died after years of substance abuse. Mingus often worked with a mid-sized ensemble (around 8–10 members) of rotating musicians known as the Jazz Workshop. Mingus broke new ground, constantly demanding that his musicians be able to explore and develop their perceptions on the spot. Those who joined the Workshop (or Sweatshops as they were colorfully dubbed by the musicians) included Pepper Adams, Jaki Byard, Booker Ervin, John Handy, Jimmy Knepper, Charles McPherson and Horace Parlan. Mingus shaped these musicians into a cohesive improvisational machine that in many ways anticipated free jazz. Some musicians dubbed the workshop a "university" for jazz. Pithecanthropus Erectus among other recordings[edit] The decade that followed is generally regarded as Mingus's most productive and fertile period. Impressive new compositions and albums appeared at an astonishing rate: some thirty records in ten years, for a number of record labels (Atlantic, Candid, Columbia, Impulse and others), a pace perhaps unmatched by any other musicians except Ellington.[citation needed] Mingus had already recorded around ten albums as a bandleader, but 1956 was a breakthrough year for him, with the release of Pithecanthropus Erectus, arguably his first major work as both a bandleader and composer. Like Ellington, Mingus wrote songs with specific musicians in mind, and his band for Erectus included adventurous musicians: piano player Mal Waldron, alto saxophonist Jackie McLean and the Sonny Rollins-influenced tenor of J. R. Monterose. The title song is a ten-minute tone poem, depicting the rise of man from his hominid roots (Pithecanthropus erectus) to an eventual downfall. A section of the piece was free improvisation, free of structure or theme. Another album from this period, The Clown (1957 also on Atlantic Records), the title track of which features narration by humorist Jean Shepherd, was the first to feature drummer Dannie Richmond, who remained his preferred drummer until Mingus's death in 1979. The two men formed one of the most impressive and versatile rhythm sections in jazz. Both were accomplished performers seeking to stretch the boundaries of their music while staying true to its roots. When joined by pianist Jaki Byard, they were dubbed "The Almighty Three".[16] Mingus Ah Um and other works[edit] In 1959 Mingus and his jazz workshop musicians recorded one of his best-known albums, Mingus Ah Um. Even in a year of standout masterpieces, including Dave Brubeck's Time Out, Miles Davis's Kind of Blue, John Coltrane's Giant Steps, and Ornette Coleman's prophetic The Shape of Jazz to Come, this was a major achievement, featuring such classic Mingus compositions as "Goodbye Pork Pie Hat" (an elegy to Lester Young) and the vocal-less version of "Fables of Faubus" (a protest against segregationist Arkansas governor Orval E. Faubus that features double-time sections). Also during 1959, Mingus recorded the album Blues & Roots, which was released the following year. As Mingus explained in his liner notes: "I was born swinging and clapped my hands in church as a little boy, but I've grown up and I like to do things other than just swing. But blues can do more than just swing." Mingus witnessed Ornette Coleman's legendary—and controversial—1960 appearances at New York City's Five Spot jazz club. He initially expressed rather mixed feelings for Coleman's innovative music: "...if the free-form guys could play the same tune twice, then I would say they were playing something...Most of the time they use their fingers on the saxophone and they don't even know what's going to come out. They're experimenting." That same year, however, Mingus formed a quartet with Richmond, trumpeter Ted Curson and multi-instrumentalist Eric Dolphy. This ensemble featured the same instruments as Coleman's quartet, and is often regarded as Mingus rising to the challenging new standard established by Coleman. The quartet recorded on both Charles Mingus Presents Charles Mingus and Mingus. The former also features the version of "Fables of Faubus" with lyrics, aptly titled "Original Faubus Fables". Only one misstep occurred in this era: 1962's Town Hall Concert. An ambitious program, it was plagued with troubles from its inception.[17] Mingus's vision, now known as Epitaph, was finally realized by conductor Gunther Schuller in a concert in 1989, 10 years after Mingus's death. The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady and other Impulse! albums[edit] In 1963, Mingus released The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady, a sprawling, multi-section masterpiece, described as "one of the greatest achievements in orchestration by any composer in jazz history."[18] The album was also unique in that Mingus asked his psychotherapist, Dr. Edmund Pollock, to provide notes for the record. Mingus also released Mingus Plays Piano, an unaccompanied album featuring some fully improvised pieces, in 1963. In addition, 1963 saw the release of Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus, an album praised by critic Nat Hentoff.[19] In 1964 Mingus put together one of his best-known groups, a sextet including Dannie Richmond, Jaki Byard, Eric Dolphy, trumpeter Johnny Coles, and tenor saxophonist Clifford Jordan. The group was recorded frequently during its short existence; Coles fell ill and left during a European tour. Dolphy stayed in Europe after the tour ended, and died suddenly in Berlin on June 28, 1964. 1964 was also the year that Mingus met his future wife, Sue Graham Ungaro. The couple were married in 1966 by Allen Ginsberg.[20] Facing financial hardship, Mingus was evicted from his New York home in 1966. Changes[edit] Mingus's pace slowed somewhat in the late 1960s and early 1970s. In 1974 he formed a quintet with Richmond, pianist Don Pullen, trumpeter Jack Walrath and saxophonist George Adams. They recorded two well-received albums, Changes One and Changes Two. Mingus also played with Charles McPherson in many of his groups during this time. Cumbia and Jazz Fusion in 1976 sought to blend Colombian music (the "Cumbia" of the title) with more traditional jazz forms. In 1971, Mingus taught for a semester at the University at Buffalo, The State University of New York as the Slee Professor of Music.[21] Later career and death[edit] By the mid-1970s, Mingus was suffering from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). His once formidable bass technique suffered, until he could no longer play the instrument. He continued composing, however, and supervised a number of recordings before his death. At the time of his death, he was working with Joni Mitchell on an album eventually titled Mingus, which included lyrics added by Mitchell to his compositions, including "Goodbye Pork Pie Hat". The album featured the talents of Wayne Shorter, Herbie Hancock, and another influential bassist and composer, Jaco Pastorius. Mingus died, aged 56, in Cuernavaca, Mexico, where he had traveled for treatment and convalescence. His ashes were scattered in the Ganges River. Personality and temper[edit] Although respected for his musical talents, Mingus was sometimes feared for his occasionally violent onstage temper, which was at times directed at members of his band and other times aimed at the audience.[22] He was physically large, prone to obesity (especially in his later years), and was by all accounts often intimidating and frightening when expressing anger or displeasure. For example, when confronted with a nightclub audience talking and clinking ice in their glasses while he performed, Mingus stopped his band and loudly chastised the audience, stating: "Isaac Stern doesn't have to put up with this shit."[23] Another time, Mingus reportedly destroyed a $20,000 bass in response to audience heckling at New York's Five Spot.[24] Guitarist and singer Jackie Paris was a first-hand witness to Mingus's irascibility. Paris recalls his time in the Jazz Workshop: "He chased everybody off the stand except [drummer] Paul Motian and me... The three of us just wailed on the blues for about an hour and a half before he called the other cats back."[25] On October 12, 1962, Mingus punched Jimmy Knepper in the mouth while the two men were working together at Mingus' apartment on a score for his upcoming concert at The Town Hall in New York, and Knepper refused to take on more work. Mingus' blow broke off a crowned tooth and its underlying stub.[26] According to Knepper, this ruined his embouchure and resulted in the permanent loss of the top octave of his range on the trombone – a significant handicap for any professional trombonist. This attack temporarily ended their working relationship, and Knepper was unable to perform at the concert. Charged with assault, Mingus appeared in court in January 1963 and was given a suspended sentence. Knepper did again work with Mingus in 1977 and played extensively with the Mingus Dynasty, formed after Mingus' death in 1979.[27] In addition to bouts of ill temper, Mingus was prone to clinical depression and tended to have brief periods of extreme creative activity intermixed with fairly long periods of greatly decreased output.[citation needed] 1966, Mingus was evicted from his apartment at 5 Great Jones Street in New York City for nonpayment of rent, captured in the 1968 documentary film Mingus: Charlie Mingus 1968, directed by Thomas Reichman. The film also features Mingus performing in clubs and in the apartment, firing a .410 shotgun indoors, composing at the piano, playing with and taking care of his young daughter Caroline, and discussing love, art, politics, and the music school he had hoped to create.[28] Legacy[edit] The Mingus Big Band[edit] Charles Mingus' music is currently being performed and reinterpreted by the Mingus Big Band, which in October 2008 began playing every Monday at Jazz Standard in New York City, and often tours the rest of the U.S. and Europe. The Mingus Big Band, the Mingus Orchestra, and the Mingus Dynasty band are managed by Jazz Workshop, Inc. and run by Mingus' widow Sue Graham Mingus. Elvis Costello has written lyrics for a few Mingus pieces. He had once sung lyrics for one piece, "Invisible Lady", backed by the Mingus Big Band on the album, Tonight at Noon: Three of Four Shades of Love.[29] Epitaph[edit] Epitaph is considered one of Charles Mingus' masterpieces. The composition is 4,235 measures long, requires two hours to perform, and is one of the longest jazz pieces ever written. Epitaph was only completely discovered, by musicologist Andrew Homzy, during the cataloging process after Mingus' death. With the help of a grant from the Ford Foundation, the score and instrumental parts were copied, and the piece itself was premiered by a 30-piece orchestra, conducted by Gunther Schuller. This concert was produced by Mingus' widow, Sue Graham Mingus, at Alice Tully Hall on June 3, 1989, 10 years after Mingus' death. It was performed again at several concerts in 2007. The performance at Walt Disney Concert Hall is available on NPR. Hal Leonard published the complete score in 2008.[citation needed] Autobiography[edit] Mingus wrote the sprawling, exaggerated, quasi-autobiography, Beneath the Underdog: His World as Composed by Mingus,[11] throughout the 1960s, and it was published in 1971. Its "stream of consciousness" style covered several aspects of his life that had previously been off-record. In addition to his musical and intellectual proliferation, Mingus goes into great detail about his perhaps overstated sexual exploits. He claims to have had more than 31 affairs in the course of his life (including 26 prostitutes in one sitting). This does not include any of his five wives (he claims to have been married to two of them simultaneously). In addition, he asserts that he held a brief career as a pimp. This has never been confirmed. Mingus's autobiography also serves as an insight into his psyche, as well as his attitudes about race and society.[30] It includes accounts of abuse at the hands of his father from an early age, being bullied as a child, his removal from a white musician's union, and grappling with disapproval while married to white women and other examples of the hardship and prejudice.[31] Cover versions[edit] Considering the number of compositions that Charles Mingus wrote, his works have not been recorded as often as comparable jazz composers. The only Mingus tribute albums recorded during his lifetime were baritone saxophonist Pepper Adams's album, Pepper Adams Plays the Compositions of Charlie Mingus, in 1963, and Joni Mitchell's album Mingus, in 1979. Of all his works, his elegant elegy for Lester Young, "Goodbye Pork Pie Hat" (from Mingus Ah Um) has probably had the most recordings. Besides recordings from the expected jazz artists, the song has also been recorded by musicians as disparate as Jeff Beck, Andy Summers, Eugene Chadbourne, and Bert Jansch and John Renbourn with and without Pentangle. Joni Mitchell sang a version with lyrics that she wrote for it. Elvis Costello has recorded "Hora Decubitus" (from Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus) on My Flame Burns Blue (2006). "Better Git It in Your Soul" was covered by Davey Graham on his album "Folk, Blues, and Beyond." Trumpeter Ron Miles performs a version of "Pithecanthropus Erectus" on his CD "Witness." New York Ska Jazz Ensemble has done a cover of Mingus's "Haitian Fight Song", as have the British folk rock group Pentangle and others. Hal Willner's 1992 tribute album Weird Nightmare: Meditations on Mingus (Columbia Records) contains idiosyncratic renditions of Mingus's works involving numerous popular musicians including Chuck D, Keith Richards, Henry Rollins and Dr. John. The Italian band Quintorigo recorded an entire album devoted to Mingus's music, titled Play Mingus. Gunther Schuller's edition of Mingus's "Epitaph" which premiered at Lincoln Center in 1989 was subsequently released on Columbia/Sony Records. One of the most elaborate tributes to Mingus came on September 29, 1969, at a festival honoring him. Duke Ellington performed The Clown, with Duke reading Jean Shepherd's narration. It was long believed that no recording of this performance existed; however, one was discovered and premiered on July 11, 2013, by Dry River Jazz host Trevor Hodgkins for NPR member station KRWG-FM with re-airings on July 13, 2013, and July 26, 2014.[32] Mingus's elegy for Duke, "Duke Ellington's Sound Of Love", was recorded by Kevin Mahogany on Double Rainbow (1993) and Anita Wardell on Why Do You Cry? (1995). Awards and honors[edit] 1971 Guggenheim Fellowship (Music Composition). 1971: Inducted in the Down Beat Jazz Hall of Fame. 1988: The National Endowment for the Arts provided grants for a Mingus nonprofit called "Let My Children Hear Music" which cataloged all of Mingus's works. The microfilms of these works were given to the Music Division of the New York Public Library where they are currently available for study.[5] 1993: The Library of Congress acquired Mingus's collected papers—including scores, sound recordings, correspondence and photos—in what they described as "the most important acquisition of a manuscript collection relating to jazz in the Library's history".[33] 1995: The United States Postal Service issued a stamp in his honor. 1997: Posthumously awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. 1999: Album Mingus Dynasty (1959) inducted in the Grammy Hall of Fame. 2005: Inducted in the Jazz at Lincoln Center, Nesuhi Ertegun Jazz Hall of Fame. Discography[edit] Main article: Charles Mingus discography Filmography[edit] 1959, Mingus contributed most of the music for John Cassavetes's gritty New York City film Shadows. 1961, Mingus appeared as a bassist and actor in the British film All Night Long. 1968, Thomas Reichman directed the documentary Mingus: Charlie Mingus 1968 1991, Ray Davies produced a documentary entitled Weird Nightmare. It contains footage of Mingus and interviews with artists making Hal Willner's tribute album of the same name, including Elvis Costello, Charlie Watts, Keith Richards, and Vernon Reid. Charles Mingus: Triumph of the Underdog (78 minutes) a documentary film on Charles Mingus directed by Don McGlynn and released in 1998. Charles Mingus – Biography One of the most important figures in twentieth century American music, Charles Mingus was a virtuoso bass player, accomplished pianist, bandleader and composer. Born on a military base in Nogales, Arizona in 1922 and raised in Watts, California, his earliest musical influences came from the church– choir and group singing– and from “hearing Duke Ellington over the radio when [he] was eight years old.” He studied double bass and composition in a formal way (five years with H. Rheinshagen, principal bassist of the New York Philharmonic, and compositional techniques with the legendary Lloyd Reese) while absorbing vernacular music from the great jazz masters, first-hand. His early professional experience, in the 40’s, found him touring with bands like Louis Armstrong, Kid Ory and Lionel Hampton. Eventually he settled in New York where he played and recorded with the leading musicians of the 1950’s– Charlie Parker, Miles Davis, Bud Powell, Art Tatum and Duke Ellington himself. One of the few bassists to do so, Mingus quickly developed as a leader of musicians. He was also an accomplished pianist who could have made a career playing that instrument. By the mid-50’s he had formed his own publishing and recording companies to protect and document his growing repertoire of original music. He also founded the “Jazz Workshop,” a group which enabled young composers to have their new works performed in concert and on recordings. Mingus soon found himself at the forefront of the avant-garde. His recordings bear witness to the extraordinarily creative body of work that followed. They include: Pithecanthropus Erectus, The Clown, Tijuana Moods, Mingus Dynasty, Mingus Ah Um, The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady, Cumbia and Jazz Fusion, Let My Children Hear Music. He recorded over a hundred albums and wrote over three hundred scores. Although he wrote his first concert piece, “Half-Mast Inhibition,” when he was seventeen years old, it was not recorded until twenty years later by a 22-piece orchestra with Gunther Schuller conducting. It was the presentation of “Revelations” which combined jazz and classical idioms, at the 1955 Brandeis Festival of the Creative Arts, that established him as one of the foremost jazz composers of his day. In 1971 Mingus was awarded the Slee Chair of Music and spent a semester teaching composition at the State University of New York at Buffalo. In the same year his autobiography, Beneath the Underdog, was published by Knopf. In 1972 it appeared in a Bantam paperback and was reissued after his death, in 1980, by Viking/Penguin and again by Pantheon Books, in 1991. In 1972 he also re-signed with Columbia Records. His music was performed frequently by ballet companies, and Alvin Ailey choreographed an hour program called “The Mingus Dances” during a 1972 collaboration with the Robert Joffrey Ballet Company. He toured extensively throughout Europe, Japan, Canada, South America and the United States until the end of 1977 when he was diagnosed as having a rare nerve disease, Amyotropic Lateral Sclerosis. He was confined to a wheelchair, and although he was no longer able to write music on paper or compose at the piano, his last works were sung into a tape recorder. From the 1960’s until his death in 1979 at age 56, Mingus remained in the forefront of American music. When asked to comment on his accomplishments, Mingus said that his abilities as a bassist were the result of hard work but that his talent for composition came from God. elected Mingus Bibliography Coleman, Janet and Al Young. 1989. Mingus/Mingus: Two Views . Berkeley, California: Creative Arts Book Company. Lindenmaier, H. Lukas and Horst J. Salewski. 1983. The Man Who Never Sleeps: The Charles Mingus Discography 1945-1978 . Frieburg, Germany: Jazzrealities. Mingus, Charles. 1971. Beneath The Underdog. Edited by Nel King. New York: Alfred A. Knopf./Vintage Books. 1991. Mingus, Charles. 1991. More Than A Fakebook: The Music Of Charles Mingus . Edited by Sue Mingus, historical perspective and musical analyses by Andrew Homzy, transcriptions by Don Sickler. New York: Jazz Workshop. Distributed by Hal Leonard, Milwaukee, WI. Mingus, Sue Graham. 2002. Tonight at Noon: A Love Story. New York: De Capo Press. Priestley, Brian. 1982. Mingus: A Critical Biography. London: Quartet Books. Santoro, Gene. 2000. Myself When I Am Real. New York: Oxford University Press. Other Recent Books of Interest Giddens, Gary. 2000. Visions of Jazz: The First Century. New York: Oxford University Press. Gioia, Ted. 1997. The History of Jazz. New York: Oxford University Press. Morgenstern, Dan. 2004. Living With Jazz: A Reader edited by Shelton Meyer. New York: Pantheon. Kirchner, Bill. 2005. The Oxford Companion to Jazz. New York: Oxford University Press. Saul, Scott. 2005. Freedom Is, Freedom Ain’t: Jazz and the Making of the Sixties. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Selected Mingus Videography Mingus (1968) A documentary by Thomas Reichman. Featuring Mingus, Dannie Richmond , Charles McPherson, and Walter Bishop. Distributed by Rhapsody films. Weird Nightmare (1993) The companion video to the Hal Wilner-produced tribute album. Video not currently available. Triumph Of The Underdog (1997) A documentary by Don McGlynn, produced by Don McGlynn and Sue Mingus. Exhaustively researched, virtually everything in the film is extraordinarily rare – newly unearthed performance footage, previously unpublished photograpgs, radio broadcasts, and private interviews. Distributed in the U.S. by Shanachie.   Albums Charles Mingus - Introducing Paul Bley album art Paul Bley, Charlie Mingus*, Art Blakey - Introducing Paul Bley  9 versions Debut Records 1954 Charles Mingus - Jazzical Moods, Vol. 1 album art Charles Mingus, John La Porta* - Jazzical Moods, Vol. 1  2 versions Period Records 1955 Charles Mingus - Jazzical Moods, Vol. 2 album art Charles Mingus, John La Porta* - Jazzical Moods, Vol. 2 ‎(10") Period Records SPL 1111 1955 Charles Mingus - Jazz Collaborations, Vol. I album art Charles Mingus, Thad Jones - Jazz Collaborations, Vol. I ‎(10") Debut Records DLP-17 1955 Charles Mingus - Pithecanthropus Erectus album art Pithecanthropus Erectus  32 versions Atlantic 1956 Charles Mingus - Jazz Composers Workshop album art Charlie Mingus*, Wally Cirillo, Teo Macero, John La Porta* - Jazz Composers Workshop  22 versions Savoy Records 1956 Charles Mingus - Move! album art The Red Norvo Trio With Tal Farlow, Charlie Mingus* - Move!  13 versions Savoy Records 1956 Charles Mingus - Mingus At The Bohemia album art Mingus At The Bohemia  19 versions Debut Records 1956 Charles Mingus - The Jazz Experiments Of Charlie Mingus album art The Jazz Experiments Of Charlie Mingus  38 versions Bethlehem Records 1956 Charles Mingus - Mingus Three album art Charles Mingus With Hampton Hawes & Danny Richmond* - Mingus Three  26 versions Jubilee 1957 Charles Mingus - Four Trombones album art Kai Winding + J.J. Johnson + Bennie Green + Willie Dennis And Featuring John Lewis (2) & Charlie Mingus* - Four Trombones  7 versions Debut Records 1957 Charles Mingus - The Clown album art The Clown  36 versions Atlantic 1957 Charles Mingus - A Modern Jazz Symposium Of Music And Poetry album art A Modern Jazz Symposium Of Music And Poetry  14 versions Bethlehem Records 1957 Charles Mingus - East Coasting album art East Coasting  35 versions Bethlehem Records 1957 Charles Mingus - Mingus Ah Um album art Mingus Ah Um  107 versions Columbia 1959 Charles Mingus - Jazz At Massey Hall album art Charlie Chan (5), Dizzy Gillespie, Bud Powell, Max Roach , Charles Mingus - Jazz At Massey Hall  21 versions Debut Records (3) 1959 Charles Mingus - Jazz Portraits album art Jazz Portraits  36 versions United Artists Records 1959 Charles Mingus - Presents Charles Mingus album art Presents Charles Mingus  37 versions Candid 1960 Charles Mingus - Mingus album art Mingus  16 versions Candid, Candid 1960 Charles Mingus - Pre-Bird album art Pre-Bird  36 versions Mercury 1960 Charles Mingus - Newport Rebels album art Charles Mingus, Max Roach, Eric Dolphy, Roy Eldridge, Jo Jones - Newport Rebels  15 versions Candid 1960 Charles Mingus - Blues & Roots album art Blues & Roots  65 versions Atlantic 1960 Charles Mingus - Four Trombones album art Four Trombones*, J.J. Johnson, Kai Winding, Bennie Green, Willie Dennis, Charlie Mingus*, John Lewis (2) - Four Trombones  6 versions Fantasy 1962 Charles Mingus - Oh Yeah album art Oh Yeah  48 versions Atlantic 1962 Charles Mingus - Town Hall Concert album art Town Hall Concert  24 versions United Artists Jazz 1962 Charles Mingus - Money Jungle album art Duke Ellington • Charlie Mingus* • Max Roach - Money Jungle  47 versions United Artists Jazz 1962 Charles Mingus - Tijuana Moods album art Tijuana Moods  61 versions RCA Victor 1962 Charles Mingus - Tonight At Noon album art Tonight At Noon  28 versions Atlantic 1964 Charles Mingus - Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus album art Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus  62 versions Impulse! 1963 Charles Mingus - My Favorite Quintet album art My Favorite Quintet  5 versions Fantasy 1964 Charles Mingus - Mingus Plays Piano (Spontaneous Compositions And Improvisations) album art Mingus Plays Piano (Spontaneous Compositions And Improvisations)  37 versions Impulse! 1964 Charles Mingus - The Black Saint And The Sinner Lady album art The Black Saint And The Sinner Lady  66 versions Impulse! 1963 Charles Mingus - Mingus At Monterey album art Mingus At Monterey  23 versions Jazz Workshop, Jazz Workshop 1965 Charles Mingus - Right Now: Live At The Jazz Workshop album art Right Now: Live At The Jazz Workshop  18 versions Fantasy 1966 Charles Mingus - Music Written For Monterey 1965, Not Heard, Played In Its Entirety At UCLA album art Music Written For Monterey 1965, Not Heard, Played In Its Entirety At UCLA  5 versions Jazz Workshop 1966 Charles Mingus - Pithycanthropus Erectus album art Pithycanthropus Erectus  9 versions America Records 1971 Charles Mingus - The Great Concert Of Charles Mingus album art The Great Concert Of Charles Mingus  20 versions America Records 1971 Charles Mingus - Charles Mingus With Orchestra album art Charles Mingus With Orchestra  3 versions Columbia 1971 Charles Mingus - Blue Bird album art Blue Bird  4 versions America Records 1971 Charles Mingus - Town Hall Concert album art Charles Mingus Featuring Eric Dolphy - Town Hall Concert  25 versions Jazz Workshop, Fantasy 1971 Charles Mingus - Let My Children Hear Music album art Let My Children Hear Music  21 versions Columbia 1972 Charles Mingus - Money Jungle album art Duke Ellington, Charles Mingus, Max Roach - Money Jungle ‎(LP, Album) United Artists Records UAS-5632 1972 Charles Mingus - Charles Mingus and Friends In Concert album art Charles Mingus and Friends In Concert  11 versions Columbia 1973 Charles Mingus - Mingus At Carnegie Hall album art Mingus At Carnegie Hall  18 versions Atlantic 1974 Charles Mingus - Mingus Moves album art Mingus Moves  17 versions Atlantic 1974 Charles Mingus - Changes One album art Changes One  14 versions Atlantic 1975 Charles Mingus - Changes Two album art Changes Two  13 versions Atlantic 1975 Charles Mingus - Changes One & Two album art Changes One & Two  5 versions Atlantic 1975 Charles Mingus - Mingus At Antibes album art Mingus At Antibes  28 versions Atlantic 1976 Charles Mingus - Three Or Four Shades Of Blues album art Three Or Four Shades Of Blues  18 versions Atlantic 1977 Charles Mingus - Statements album art Statements  4 versions Joker (2), International Joker Production 1977 Charles Mingus - His Final Work album art His Final Work  40 versions Philips 1977 Charles Mingus - Giants Of Jazz Volume Two album art Charles Mingus, Earl Fatha Hines*, Lionel Hampton - Giants Of Jazz Volume Two  5 versions Who's Who In Jazz 1977 Charles Mingus - Charles Mingus Live With Eric Dolphy album art Charles Mingus Live With Eric Dolphy  12 versions BYG Records 1978 Charles Mingus - Cumbia & Jazz Fusion album art Cumbia & Jazz Fusion  18 versions Atlantic 1978 Charles Mingus - Nostalgia In Times Square / The Immortal 1959 Sessions album art Nostalgia In Times Square / The Immortal 1959 Sessions  5 versions Columbia 1979 Charles Mingus - Me Myself An Eye album art Me Myself An Eye  13 versions Atlantic 1979 Charles Mingus - Tijuana Moods album art Tijuana Moods ‎(LP, RE, Gat) RCA, RCA Masters FXL1 7295 1979 Charles Mingus - Something Like A Bird album art Something Like A Bird  7 versions Atlantic 1980 Charles Mingus - I Giganti Del Jazz Vol. 83 album art René Thomas / Jacques Peltzer* / Charlie Mingus* / Eric Dolphy / Booker Ervin - I Giganti Del Jazz Vol. 83  3 versions Curcio 1982 Charles Mingus - Mingus Dynasty album art Mingus Dynasty  10 versions CBS 1983 Charles Mingus - New Tijuana Moods album art New Tijuana Moods  7 versions Bluebird (3) 1986 Charles Mingus - Meditation album art Meditation  7 versions France's Concert 1987 Charles Mingus - The Rarest On Debut - Mingus Newly Discovered album art The Rarest On Debut - Mingus Newly Discovered ‎(LP, Album, Mono, Ltd, Num) Mythic Sound, Debut Records MSLP 003 1987 Charles Mingus - Mingus In Europe Volume I album art Mingus In Europe Volume I  5 versions Enja Records, Enja Records 1988 Charles Mingus - Reincarnation Of A Love Bird album art Reincarnation Of A Love Bird  8 versions Candid 1987 Charles Mingus - Mingus In Europe album art Mingus In Europe  8 versions Enja Records 1988 Charles Mingus - Live In Paris, 1964 Vol. 2 album art Live In Paris, 1964 Vol. 2  3 versions France's Concert 1988 Charles Mingus - When The Saints Go Marchin' In album art Charles Mingus Band* Featuring Dizzy Gillespie - When The Saints Go Marchin' In ‎(LP, Album) Heart Note Records HN 009 1988 Charles Mingus - Nice Mood album art Nice Mood ‎(LP, Album) Heart Note Records HN 005 1988 Charles Mingus - In Amsterdam 1964 album art In Amsterdam 1964  2 versions DIW 1989 Charles Mingus - In Paris 1970 album art In Paris 1970 ‎(2xCD, Album) DIW Records DIW-326/327 1989 Charles Mingus - Live In Chateauvallon, 1972 album art Live In Chateauvallon, 1972  2 versions France's Concert 1989 Charles Mingus - Orange album art Charles Mingus Featuring Eric Dolphy - Orange  2 versions Polydor 1990 Charles Mingus - Weary Blues album art Langston Hughes, Charles Mingus And Leonard Feather - Weary Blues  3 versions Verve Records, PolyGram 1990 Charles Mingus - Meditations On Integration album art Meditations On Integration  2 versions Bandstand 1992 Charles Mingus - Fables Of Faubus album art Fables Of Faubus ‎(CD) Four Star FS-40070 1993 Charles Mingus - Revenge! The Legendary Paris Concerts album art Revenge! The Legendary Paris Concerts  2 versions Revenge! Records 1996 Charles Mingus - Jazz Classics album art Jazz Classics ‎(CD-ROM, Album) am@do, am@do CA 36000, CD CA 36000 2001 Charles Mingus - Legendary Trios album art Legendary Trios ‎(CD, Album) Gambit Records 69222 2005 Charles Mingus - Stuttgart Meditations album art Stuttgart Meditations ‎(3xLP) Get Back GET2036 2007 Charles Mingus - From Barrelhouse To Bop album art John Mehegan With Charles Mingus - From Barrelhouse To Bop ‎(10", Album) Perspective Records (6) PR-1 Unknown Charles Mingus - Live album art Live ‎(CD, Album) Affinity CD AFF 778 Unknown Singles & EPs Charles Mingus - Jazz Collaborations, Vol. I album art Charles Mingus, Thad Jones - Jazz Collaborations, Vol. I ‎(7", EP) Debut Records DEP 25 1955 Charles Mingus - The Clown album art The Clown  2 versions Atlantic, Atlantic 1957 Charles Mingus - Jazz At Massey Hall Volume 4 album art Dizzy Gillespie, Bud Powell, Charles Mingus, Max Roach And Charlie Chan (5) - Jazz At Massey Hall Volume 4  2 versions Debut Records (3) 1958 Charles Mingus - Jazz At Massey Hall Volume 1 album art Dizzy Gillespie, Bud Powell, Charles Mingus, Max Roach And Charlie Chan (5) - Jazz At Massey Hall Volume 1  3 versions Debut Records (3) 1958 Charles Mingus - Jazz At Massey Hall Volume 3 album art Dizzy Gillespie, Bud Powell, Charles Mingus, Max Roach And Charlie Chan (5) - Jazz At Massey Hall Volume 3  3 versions Debut Records (3) 1958 Charles Mingus - Jazz At Massey Hall Volume 2 album art Dizzy Gillespie, Bud Powell, Charles Mingus, Max Roach And Charlie Chan (5) - Jazz At Massey Hall Volume 2  2 versions Debut Records (3) 1958 Charles Mingus - Jazz Gallery: Charles Mingus album art Jazz Gallery: Charles Mingus  2 versions Philips 1959 Charles Mingus - Scenes In The City album art Scenes In The City ‎(7", EP) Parlophone GEP 8786 1959 Charles Mingus - Mingus Ah Um album art Mingus Ah Um ‎(7", EP) Columbia B 13701 1959 Jazz Gallery: Charles Mingus ‎(7", EP) Philips 429 731 BE 1959 Charles Mingus - Wednesday Night Prayer Meeting album art Wednesday Night Prayer Meeting  2 versions Atlantic 1960 Charles Mingus - Blues & Roots album art Blues & Roots ‎(7", EP) Atlantic ATL-EP 80.027 1960 Charles Mingus - A Foggy Day / Blue Cee album art A Foggy Day / Blue Cee ‎(7", EP) Atlantic 232011 1960 Charles Mingus - Jazz Makers album art Jazz Makers  2 versions Mercury, Mercury 1963 Charles Mingus - Charlie Mingus album art Charlie Mingus ‎(7", EP) Fratelli Fabbri Editori SdMJ 021 1969 Charles Mingus - Swing Low, Sweet Cadillac / II B.S. album art Dizzy Gillespie / Charles Mingus - Swing Low, Sweet Cadillac / II B.S. ‎(12", Single, Promo) Verve Records VERR01424-1 2005 Charles Mingus - 51st Street Blues (Part 1 and Part 2) album art 51st Street Blues (Part 1 and Part 2) ‎(7") Bethlehem Records 45-11041 Unknown Charles Mingus - Crazy Rhythm / The Midnight Sun Will Never Set / II B.S.  album art Benny Carter And His Orchestra, Charlie Mingus* - Crazy Rhythm / The Midnight Sun Will Never Set / II B.S. ‎(7", Single) Jazzbox JLEP 143 Unknown Charles Mingus - Evolution album art Teddy Charles, Charlie Mingus*, J.R. Monterose - Teddy Charles New Directions Quartet - Evolution ‎(7", EP) Metronome MEP 323 Unknown Charles Mingus - East Coast Ghost album art Charlie Mingus* Et L'Australian Jazz Quintet* - East Coast Ghost ‎(7", EP) Versailles (2) 90M310 Unknown Charles Mingus - Mingus At The Bohemia, Vol. 1 album art Charles Mingus Featuring Eddie Bert, Mal Waldron, George Barrow, Willie Jones - Mingus At The Bohemia, Vol. 1 ‎(7", EP) Debut Records (3) DEP 29 Unknown Charles Mingus - Jazz Collaborations Vol. 2 album art Thad Jones, Charles Mingus - Jazz Collaborations Vol. 2 ‎(7", Single) Debut Records (3) DEP 26 Unknown Charles Mingus - Scenes In The City / East Coasting album art Scenes In The City / East Coasting ‎(7", Single) Bethlehem Records 45-3041 Unknown Charles Mingus - Jazz Masters album art Jazz Masters ‎(7", EP) Savoy Records, Musidisc SA 3010, MU 3010 Unknown Charles Mingus - Mingus At The Bohemia, Vol. 2 album art Mingus At The Bohemia, Vol. 2 ‎(7", EP) Debut Records (3) DEP 30 Unknown Compilations Charles Mingus - 4 Lessons In Jazz album art Art Blakey & The Jazz Messengers, Charlie Mingus*, Australian Jazz Quintet*, Johnny Richards - 4 Lessons In Jazz ‎(LP, Comp) AAMCO Records ALP-302 1956 Charles Mingus - Evolution album art Teddy Charles / Shorty Rogers / Jimmy Giuffre / Charlie Mingus* / Shelly Manne - Evolution  5 versions Prestige 1957 Charles Mingus - Pithecanthropus Erectus album art Pithecanthropus Erectus  2 versions Atlantic, Atlantic 1958 Charles Mingus - The Fabulous Thad Jones album art The Fabulous Thad Jones* With Frank Wess, Hank Jones, John Dennis (2), Charlie Mingus*, Kenny Clarke, Max Roach - The Fabulous Thad Jones  6 versions Fantasy 1962 Charles Mingus - The Best Of Charlie Mingus album art The Best Of Charlie Mingus ‎(LP, Comp, Gat) Atlantic, Atlantic SMAT 2005, SMAT-2005 1968 Charles Mingus - Foundations Of Modern Jazz album art Charlie Mingus* / John La Porta Group / Osie Johnson And His Orchestra / The Jones Boys / The Birdlanders - Foundations Of Modern Jazz  6 versions Everest Records Archive Of Folk & Jazz Music 1969 Charles Mingus - The Best Of Charles Mingus album art The Best Of Charles Mingus  7 versions Atlantic 1970 Charles Mingus - Better Git It In Your Soul album art Better Git It In Your Soul  6 versions Columbia 1971 Charles Mingus - Mingus album art Mingus  11 versions Prestige 1972 Charles Mingus - The Candid Recordings album art Mingus* Featuring: Eric Dolphy - The Candid Recordings  2 versions Barnaby Records 1972 Charles Mingus - Reevaluation: The Impulse Years album art Reevaluation: The Impulse Years  2 versions Impulse!, Impulse! 1973 Charles Mingus - The Greatest Jazz Concert Ever album art Charlie Parker, Dizzy Gillespie, Bud Powell, Charles Mingus, Max Roach - The Greatest Jazz Concert Ever  28 versions Prestige 1973 Charles Mingus - The Art Of Charles Mingus - The Atlantic Years album art The Art Of Charles Mingus - The Atlantic Years  5 versions Atlantic 1973 Charles Mingus - Jazz History Vol. 19 album art Jazz History Vol. 19  2 versions Polydor 1974 Charles Mingus - Reincarnation Of A Lovebird album art Reincarnation Of A Lovebird ‎(2xLP, Comp, RE, RM) Prestige P-24028 1974 Charles Mingus - Treasury Of Modern Jazz Vol.6 album art Charles Mingus, Duke Ellington - Treasury Of Modern Jazz Vol.6 ‎(2xLP, Comp, Box) Polydor, Polydor, Polydor, Polydor TMJ 1007, TMJ 1008, 1111 229, 1111 237 1974 Charles Mingus - The Red Norvo Trio With Tal Farlow And Charles Mingus album art The Red Norvo Trio With Tal Farlow And Charles Mingus - The Red Norvo Trio With Tal Farlow And Charles Mingus  6 versions Savoy Records 1976 Charles Mingus - Charlie Mingus With Red Norvo And Tal Farlow album art Charlie Mingus* With Red Norvo And Tal Farlow - Charlie Mingus With Red Norvo And Tal Farlow ‎(LP, Comp) Savoy Records ZNLY 33305 1977 Charles Mingus - Soul Fusion album art Soul Fusion  3 versions Pickwick 1978 Charles Mingus - Passions Of A Man: An Anthology Of His Atlantic Recordings album art Passions Of A Man: An Anthology Of His Atlantic Recordings  5 versions Atlantic 1979 Charles Mingus - The Mingus Connection album art The Mingus Connection ‎(2xLP, Comp, Gat) Jazz Vogue VJD 562 1979 Charles Mingus - I Giganti Del Jazz Vol. 16 album art Charlie Mingus*, Thelonious Monk, John Coltrane, Eric Dolphy - I Giganti Del Jazz Vol. 16  3 versions Curcio 1980 Charles Mingus - Charles Mingus album art Charles Mingus  2 versions Fabbri Editori 1980 Charles Mingus - I Giganti Del Jazz Vol. 2 album art Sarah Vaughan / Miles Davis / Charlie Mingus* / Dizzy Gillespie - I Giganti Del Jazz Vol. 2  6 versions Curcio 1980 Charles Mingus - Portrait album art Charles Mingus With Eric Dolphy And Jaki Byard - Portrait  4 versions Prestige 1980 Charles Mingus - Los Grandes Del Jazz 16 album art Charlie Mingus* / Thelonious Monk / Milton Jackson* / John Coltrane - Los Grandes Del Jazz 16 ‎(LP, Comp) Sarpe GJ- 16 1980 Charles Mingus - Great Moments With Charles Mingus album art Great Moments With Charles Mingus  4 versions MCA Impulse! 1981 Charles Mingus - Thad Jones & Charles Mingus album art Thad Jones, Charles Mingus - Thad Jones & Charles Mingus  2 versions Prestige 1981 Charles Mingus - Charles Mingus album art Charles Mingus ‎(LP, Comp) CBS/Sony FCPA 606 1981 Charles Mingus - I Giganti Del Jazz 100 album art Miles Davis / Charlie Mingus* - I Giganti Del Jazz 100  4 versions Curcio 1982 Charles Mingus - Great Jazz Inventors album art Davis*, Mingus*, Monk* - Great Jazz Inventors  2 versions The Franklin Mint Record Society 1983 Charles Mingus - Charles Mingus album art Charles Mingus ‎(3xLP, Comp) Fantasy 68.529/31 1983 Charles Mingus - The Complete Candid Recordings Of Charles Mingus album art The Complete Candid Recordings Of Charles Mingus  4 versions Mosaic Records (2) 1985 Charles Mingus - The Charles Mingus Collection album art The Charles Mingus Collection  2 versions Deja Vu 1985 Charles Mingus - Mingus & Duke album art Mingus & Duke  2 versions Jazz Masterworks 1985 Charles Mingus - New York Sketch Book album art New York Sketch Book ‎(CD, Comp) Affinity CD Charly 19 1986 Charles Mingus - The Young Rebel album art The Young Rebel ‎(LP, Comp) Swingtime ST 1010 1986 Charles Mingus - Mingus, Mingus, Mingus, Mingus, Mingus + The Black Saint And The Sinner Lady + The Clown + Oh Yeah album art Mingus, Mingus, Mingus, Mingus, Mingus + The Black Saint And The Sinner Lady + The Clown + Oh Yeah ‎(4xLP, Comp, Box) MCA Records 240 717-1 1986 Charles Mingus - The Rarest On Debut - Charles Mingus Sideman album art The Rarest On Debut - Charles Mingus Sideman ‎(LP, Comp, Mono, Ltd, Num) Mythic Sound, Debut Records MSLP002 1987 Charles Mingus - The Rarest On Debut album art The Rarest On Debut ‎(LP, Comp, Mono, Ltd, Num) Mythic Sound, Debut Records MSLP001 1987 Charles Mingus - Shoes Of The Fisherman's Wife album art Shoes Of The Fisherman's Wife  8 versions Columbia 1988 Charles Mingus - The Essence Of Charles Mingus album art The Essence Of Charles Mingus ‎(CD, Album, Comp) CBS/Sony 30DP 5030 1988 Charles Mingus - Charles Mingus album art Charles Mingus ‎(LP, Comp) Musica Jazz 2 MJP 1067 1988 Charles Mingus - Charles Mingus album art Charles Mingus  2 versions Fabbri Editori 1989 Charles Mingus - Mingus - Monk album art Charlie Mingus* / Thelonious Monk - Mingus - Monk  2 versions Armando Curcio Editore 1989 Charles Mingus - "Pithecanthropus Erectus" 1955-1957 album art "Pithecanthropus Erectus" 1955-1957  3 versions Giants Of Jazz 1989 Charles Mingus - Pašije Člověka album art Pašije Člověka ‎(LP, Comp) Atlantic, Supraphon, Supraphon 11 0212-1 511, 11 0212-1511 1989 Charles Mingus - Charles Mingus (8 Top Tracks) album art Charles Mingus (8 Top Tracks) ‎(CD, Comp) Frequenz 044-011 1989 Charles Mingus - The Complete Debut Recordings album art The Complete Debut Recordings  3 versions Debut Records 1990 Charles Mingus - Mysterious Blues album art Mysterious Blues  5 versions Candid, Candid 1990 Charles Mingus - The Best Of Teo Macero album art Teo Macero Featuring Art Farmer, Bill Evans + Lee Konitz, Ed Shaughnessy, Mal Waldron + Al Cohn, Charles Mingus, Eddie Bert + Phil Woods, Frank Rehak, Clark Terry + Eddie Costa, Pepper Adams - The Best Of Teo Macero ‎(CD, Comp) Stash Records ST-CD-527 1990 Charles Mingus - Fables Of Faubus album art Fables Of Faubus ‎(CD, Comp) Object Enterprises ORO 103 1990 Charles Mingus - Blue Bird album art Blue Bird ‎(CD, Comp) Editions Atlas JA CD 2032 1990 Charles Mingus - Charles Mingus album art Charles Mingus ‎(CD, Comp) Armando Curcio Editore DEJ-19 1991 Charles Mingus - The Search album art The Search ‎(CD, Comp) DeAgostini MJ 1060-1 1991 Charles Mingus - Fables Of Faubus album art Fables Of Faubus ‎(CD, Comp) DeAgostini MJ 1061-1 1991 Charles Mingus - Original Faubus Fables album art Original Faubus Fables  2 versions All That's Jazz 1992 Charles Mingus - Charles Mingus 2 album art Charles Mingus 2 ‎(CD, Comp) Armando Curcio Editore DEJ-70 1992 Charles Mingus - The Complete 1959 CBS Charles Mingus Sessions album art The Complete 1959 CBS Charles Mingus Sessions ‎(4xLP, Album, RE + Box, Comp, Ltd) Mosaic Records (2) MQ4-143 1993 Charles Mingus - Jazz Double Bill album art Thelonious Monk / Charles Mingus - Jazz Double Bill ‎(CD, Comp) Starburst Music World CD-STB-8799 1993 Charles Mingus - Thirteen Pictures: The Charles Mingus Anthology album art Thirteen Pictures: The Charles Mingus Anthology ‎(2xCD, Comp + Box) Rhino Records (2) R2 71402 1993 Charles Mingus - The Collection album art The Collection ‎(CD, Comp) Castle Communications CCSCD 382 1993 Charles Mingus - In A Soulful Mood album art In A Soulful Mood  6 versions Music Club 1995 Charles Mingus - The Best Of Charles Mingus album art The Best Of Charles Mingus ‎(CD, Comp) Dixie Live DLCD 4115 1995 Charles Mingus - So Long Charlie album art So Long Charlie ‎(CD, Comp) Ediciones Del Prado GJ045 1995 Charles Mingus - This Is Jazz album art This Is Jazz  4 versions Legacy 1996 Charles Mingus - Jazz & Blues Collection - 61 album art Jazz & Blues Collection - 61 ‎(CD, Comp, RM) Editions Atlas WIS CD 661 1996 Charles Mingus - Portrait album art Portrait ‎(CD, Comp) Columbia 4978742000 1996 Charles Mingus - Fables Of Faubus album art Fables Of Faubus ‎(CD, Comp) Giants Of Jazz CD 53161 1996 Charles Mingus - Priceless Jazz Collection album art Priceless Jazz Collection  3 versions GRP 1997 Charles Mingus - Passions Of A Man: The Complete Atlantic Recordings 1956-1961 album art Passions Of A Man: The Complete Atlantic Recordings 1956-1961  3 versions Rhino Records (2) 1997 Charles Mingus - The Complete 1959 Columbia Recordings album art The Complete 1959 Columbia Recordings  2 versions Columbia, Legacy 1998 Charles Mingus - Alternate Takes album art Alternate Takes  2 versions Columbia 1998 Charles Mingus - New Jazz Language album art John Coltrane, Miles Davis, Charles Mingus - New Jazz Language ‎(3xCD, Comp) Summit Deluxe, Summit (4), Summit (4), Summit (4) SDCDBX 3666, SUMCD 4166, SUMCD 4192, SUMCD 4162 1998 Charles Mingus - Backtracks album art Backtracks ‎(CD, Comp) Backtracks/Renaissance Records RRBT00611 1999 Charles Mingus - Central Avenue Sounds, Jazz In Los Angeles (1921-1956) album art Wardell Gray, Nat King Cole, Dexter Gordon, Jelly Roll Morton, T-Bone Walker, Art Tatum, Lionel Hampton, Charles Mingus, Gerald Wilson, Benny Carter - Central Avenue Sounds, Jazz In Los Angeles (1921-1956) ‎(CD, Comp) Rhino Entertainment Company R2 75872 1999 Charles Mingus - West Coast 1945-49 album art West Coast 1945-49  2 versions Uptown Records (2) 2000 Charles Mingus - Ken Burns Jazz album art Ken Burns Jazz  4 versions Columbia, Legacy 2000 Charles Mingus - Plays It Cool album art Plays It Cool ‎(CD, Comp) Metro METRCD029 2000 Charles Mingus - Shuffle Bass Boogie album art Shuffle Bass Boogie  2 versions Documents 2001 Charles Mingus - The Very Best Of Charles Mingus: The Atlantic Years album art The Very Best Of Charles Mingus: The Atlantic Years  2 versions Rhino Records (2), Atlantic 2001 Charles Mingus - Me Myself An Eye / Something Like A Bird album art Me Myself An Eye / Something Like A Bird ‎(2xCD, Comp) Collectables COL-CD-6840 2001 Charles Mingus - Move album art The Red Norvo Trio with Tal Farlow and Charles Mingus - Move ‎(CD, Comp, Mono) Past Perfect Silver Line 205755-203 2001 Charles Mingus - Charles Mingus Trilogy (The Complete Bethlehem Jazz Collection) album art Charles Mingus Trilogy (The Complete Bethlehem Jazz Collection) ‎(CD, Comp, RE, RM + 2xCD, Album, RE, RM + Box, Comp) Avenue Jazz R2 74273 2001 Charles Mingus - Charles Mingus's Finest Hour album art Charles Mingus's Finest Hour  2 versions Verve Records 2002 Charles Mingus - 80th Birthday Celebration album art 80th Birthday Celebration ‎(3xCD, Comp) Fantasy fancd60662 2002 Charles Mingus - Timeless album art Timeless ‎(CD, Comp) Savoy Jazz SVY 17132 2002 Charles Mingus - Mood Indingo album art Mood Indingo ‎(CD, Comp) EmArcy 059 877-2 2003 Charles Mingus - Mingus Fingers / Minor Instrusions album art Mingus Fingers / Minor Instrusions ‎(2xCD, Comp, RM) Documents, Documents 221953, 221953-306 2004 Charles Mingus - The Young Rebel album art The Young Rebel ‎(4xCD, Comp + Box) Proper Records (2) PROPERBOX 77 2004 Charles Mingus - Ultimate Jazz & Blues album art Ultimate Jazz & Blues ‎(CD, Comp) Flex Media Entertainment, Weton-Wesgram IECJ30001-9 2004 Charles Mingus - Il Mito Del Contrabbasso Jazz album art Il Mito Del Contrabbasso Jazz ‎(CD, Comp) DeAgostini IGJ08 - 2 2004 Charles Mingus - The Charles Mingus Story - gelesen von Rufus Beck album art The Charles Mingus Story - gelesen von Rufus Beck ‎(2xCD, Comp) ZYX Music HOER 9002 2005 Charles Mingus - Minor Intrusion album art Minor Intrusion ‎(4xCD, Comp, RM) Quadromania 222459-444 2005 Charles Mingus - The Impulse Story album art The Impulse Story  3 versions Impulse! 2006 Charles Mingus - The Jazz Collection - Charles Mingus album art The Jazz Collection - Charles Mingus  2 versions Blue Note, Verve Records 2006 Charles Mingus - Charles Mingus In Paris: The Complete America Session album art Charles Mingus In Paris: The Complete America Session  2 versions Universal Music Jazz France, EmArcy 2006 Charles Mingus - The Individualist album art The Individualist ‎(CD, Comp) Primo (2) PRMCD6019 2006 Three Or Four Shades Of Blues / Cumbia & Jazz Sessions ‎(CD, Album + CD, Album + Comp) Collectables COL-CD-7840 2006 Charles Mingus - Introducing Charles Mingus album art Introducing Charles Mingus ‎(CD, Comp) Warner Jazz, Rhino Records (2) 8122733722 2006 Charles Mingus - Columbia Jazz Profiles album art Columbia Jazz Profiles  2 versions Columbia, Sony BMG Music Entertainment 2007 Charles Mingus - The Sound Of Love album art The Sound Of Love ‎(CD, Comp) Kings Road Multi Media KRMCD002 2007 Charles Mingus - The Best Of Charles Mingus album art The Best Of Charles Mingus ‎(CD, Comp) Verve Records B0009768-02 2007 Charles Mingus - The Leaves album art The Leaves ‎(CD, Comp) Jazz Cat JC2516 2008 Charles Mingus - Epitaph album art Epitaph ‎(2xCD, Comp) Le Chant Du Monde 274 1609.10 2009 Charles Mingus - Pithecanthropus Erectus + The Clown album art Pithecanthropus Erectus + The Clown ‎(CD, Comp) Essential Jazz Classics EJC55437 2009 Charles Mingus - Epitaph album art Epitaph ‎(2xCD, Comp, Boo) Le Monde, Le Chant Du Monde none 2009 Charles Mingus - Kind Of Mingus album art Kind Of Mingus ‎(10xCD, Album + Box, Comp) House Of Jazz, T2 Entertainment 220120 2009 Charles Mingus - Rebelle Du Jazz album art Rebelle Du Jazz ‎(CD, Album, RE + CD, Album, RE + CD, Album, RE + Co) Columbia, Legacy, RCA Victor, Sony Music 88697 455142 2009 Charles Mingus - Jazz Workshop 1957-1958 album art Jazz Workshop 1957-1958 ‎(2xCD, Comp) Fresh Sound Records FSR-CD 535 2009 Charles Mingus - 3 Originals (The Clown • Jazz Experiments • Pithecanthropus Erectus) album art 3 Originals (The Clown • Jazz Experiments • Pithecanthropus Erectus) ‎(2xCD, Comp, RM) Classic Jazz (4) CJA2015 2010 Charles Mingus - Original Album Classics album art Original Album Classics ‎(3xCD, Album, RE, RM, Car + Box, Comp) Columbia, Legacy, Sony Music 88697736052 2010 Charles Mingus - Three Classic Albums album art Three Classic Albums ‎(2xCD, Comp, RM) Real Gone RGJCD204 2010 Charles Mingus - Charles Mingus And The Newport Rebels album art Charles Mingus And The Newport Rebels ‎(CD, Comp) Candid CCD79353 2010 Charles Mingus - Eight Classic Albums album art Eight Classic Albums ‎(4xCD, Comp, RM) Real Gone RGJCD221 2010 Charles Mingus - Mingus Ah Um album art Mingus Ah Um ‎(2xCD, Comp, RM) Not Now Music NOT2CD336 2010 Charles Mingus - Anthology album art Anthology  2 versions Il Sole 24 Ore 2011 Charles Mingus - Four Classic Albums Plus album art Four Classic Albums Plus ‎(2xCD, Comp, RM) Avid Jazz, Avid Entertainment AMSC1026 2011 Charles Mingus - Original Album Series album art Original Album Series ‎(Box, Comp + 5xCD, Album) Atlantic, Rhino Records (2) 8122797628 2011 Charles Mingus - Mingus Revisited + Mingus In Wonderland album art Mingus Revisited + Mingus In Wonderland ‎(CD, Comp) Essential Jazz Classics EJC55510 2011 Charles Mingus - The Black Saint And The Sinner Lady / Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus album art The Black Saint And The Sinner Lady / Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus ‎(CD, Comp, RM) Impulse! 06025 2780953 2011 Charles Mingus - The Complete Columbia & RCA Albums Collection album art The Complete Columbia & RCA Albums Collection ‎(Box, Comp + 10xCD, Album, RE, RM) Sony Music, RCA, Columbia, Legacy 88697979592 2012 Charles Mingus - The Jazz Workshop Concerts 1964–65 album art The Jazz Workshop Concerts 1964–65 ‎(7xCD, Comp + Box, Ltd, Num) Mosaic Records (2) MD7-253 2012 Charles Mingus - Jazz Masters Deluxe Collection album art Jazz Masters Deluxe Collection ‎(CD, Comp) Entertainment Supplies esj040 2012 Charles Mingus - The Savoy Recordings album art Charles Mingus & Booker Ervin - The Savoy Recordings  2 versions Brilliant Jazz 2013 Charles Mingus - Sixteen Classic Albums album art Sixteen Classic Albums ‎(10xCD, Comp) Real Gone RGJCD319 2013 Charles Mingus - Six Classic Albums Vol. 2 album art Six Classic Albums Vol. 2 ‎(4xCD, Comp, RM) Real Gone RGJCD432 2013 Charles Mingus - Mingus Fingus album art Mingus Fingus ‎(3xCD, Comp) Le Chant Du Monde 274 2461.63 2014 Charles Mingus - I Capolavori In 3 CD - Jazz album art I Capolavori In 3 CD - Jazz ‎(2xCD, Album, RE + CD, Album, RE + Box, Comp, Box) Columbia 88875036262 2014 Charles Mingus - Jazz Heroes Collection 11 album art The George Russell Sextet, Charles Mingus, Cecil Taylor - Jazz Heroes Collection 11 ‎(CD, Comp) Naïve NJ 628011 2014 Charles Mingus -  Mingus The impulse Albums album art Mingus The impulse Albums ‎(3xCD, Comp) Impulse! 060075348241 2014 Charles Mingus - Jazz At Massey Hall: The 10-Inch LP Collection album art Max*, Diz*, Charlie*, Bud*, Mingus* - Jazz At Massey Hall: The 10-Inch LP Collection ‎(10", Album, RE + 10", Album, RE + 10", Album, RE +) Debut Records DEB-37509-01 2015 Charles Mingus - Live In Europe 1975 album art Live In Europe 1975 ‎(CD, Comp + DVD-V, RE, PAL) Salvo SALVOSVX038 2015 Charles Mingus - The Complete Albums Collections 1957-1960 album art The Complete Albums Collections 1957-1960 ‎(4xCD, Comp + Box) Enlightenment (3) EN4CD9094 2016 Charles Mingus - All That Jazz, Vol. 56: Ah Um & Live At Massey Hall Toronto (Highlights) album art All That Jazz, Vol. 56: Ah Um & Live At Massey Hall Toronto (Highlights) ‎(15xFile, MP3, Comp, RM, 320) Jube Legends none 2016 Charles Mingus - The Complete Albums Collections 1960-1963 album art The Complete Albums Collections 1960-1963 ‎(4xCD, Comp + Box) Enlightenment (3) EN4CD9095 2016 Charles Mingus - The Complete Albums Collections 1953-1957 album art The Complete Albums Collections 1953-1957 ‎(4xCD, Comp + Box) Enlightenment (3) EN4CD9093 2016 Charles Mingus - Timeless Classic Albums album art Timeless Classic Albums ‎(Box, Comp, Vin + 5xCD, Pit) Vinylogy DOLCD0045 2017 Charles Mingus - Complete Live At The Bohemia • 1955 • album art Complete Live At The Bohemia • 1955 • ‎(2xCD, Album, Comp, RE, RM, 24 ) Essential Jazz Classics EJC55725 2017 Charles Mingus - Charles Mingus Et Le Batteur De Sa Vie album art Charles Mingus Et Le Batteur De Sa Vie ‎(CD, Comp, Promo) Jazz Magazine (2) none 2017 Charles Mingus - The Eldridge Session album art The Eldridge Session ‎(LP, Comp, Num, 140) Doxy ACV2068 2017 Milestones Of A Legend ‎(10xCD, Comp + Box) Documents 600376 2017 Charles Mingus - Goodbye Pork Pie Hat album art Goodbye Pork Pie Hat ‎(CD, Comp) Movieplay (3) JHR 73516 Unknown Charles Mingus - Two Original Albums Tijuana Moods Mingus Ah Um album art Two Original Albums Tijuana Moods Mingus Ah Um ‎(2xLP, Comp, RM) Vinyl Passion VP 80717 Unknown Charles Mingus - Mysterious Blues album art Mysterious Blues ‎(10xCD, Comp, Mono + Box) Documents 231046 Unknown Charles Mingus - Trio & Sextet album art Trio & Sextet ‎(2xLP, Comp, RE) Trip Jazz TLX-5040 Unknown Charles Mingus - Louis Joos album art Louis Joos ‎(2xCD, Comp) Nocturne BDJZ037 Unknown Charles Mingus - Works 1951-1977 album art Works 1951-1977 ‎(2xCD, Album, Comp) Recording Arts SA R2CD 43-11 Unknown Dave Brubeck, Wynton Marsalis, Dexter Gordon, Dizzy Gillespie, Woody Herman, Sonny Stitt, Freddie Hubbard, Charles Mingus, Thelonious Monk, Chick Corea, Gary Burton, Pat Metheny - Jazz Essentials Featuring Take Five ‎(CD, Comp) UAV Entertainment 18082 Unknown Charles Mingus - History Of Jazz Vol.8 album art Miles Davis, John Coltrane, Mal Waldron, Barney Kessel, Dexter Gordon, Charles Mingus, Wardell Gray, Kenny Clarke, Hampton Hawes - History Of Jazz Vol.8 ‎(LP, Comp) BYG Records 529.608 Unknown Charles Mingus - Volume 2 album art Volume 2 ‎(2xLP, Comp, RE) Monkey Records (4) MY 40002 Unknown Videos Charles Mingus - Mingus (Charlies Mingus) 1968 album art Mingus (Charlies Mingus) 1968  2 versions Rhapsody Films 1990 Charles Mingus - Live In Norway 1964 album art Live In Norway 1964 ‎(VHS, PAL, B&W) Green Line Records vidjazz 15 1990 Charles Mingus - Live At Montreux 1975 album art Live At Montreux 1975 ‎(DVD-V, NTSC) Eagle Eye Media EE 39047-9 2004 Charles Mingus - Live In '64 album art Live In '64 ‎(DVD-V, Mono, Bla) Jazz Icons, Reelin' In The Years Productions, Naxos 2.119006 2007 Charles Mingus - Orange Was The Colour Of Her Dress album art Orange Was The Colour Of Her Dress ‎(DVD) Salt Peanuts 44613 2007 Charles Mingus - Epitaph album art Epitaph  3 versions Eagle Vision 2008 Miscellaneous Thranes Metode ‎(CD-ROM, Promo) Not On Label (Charles Mingus) none 1998 Charles Mingus - The Mingus Sisters Speak album art The Mingus Sisters Speak ‎(4xCDr, S/Edition) Lacetop Records none 2001 Leni Sinclair, born Magdalene Arndt, is an American photographer and radical political activist who lives in Detroit. She has photographed rock and jazz musicians since the early 1960s. She was the co-founder of the White Panther Party along with John Sinclair and Pun Plamondon. Contents 1 Early life 2 Art and activism 3 White Panther Party 4 Later years 5 Leni Sinclair Archive 6 References 7 Further reading Early life Magdalene Arndt was born on March 8, 1940, in Königsberg, Germany,[1] later renamed Kaliningrad when it became territory of the Soviet Union. She grew up in the village of Vahldorf near Magdeburg in East Germany where she listened to American jazz artists such as Harry Belafonte, Louis Armstrong and Ella Fitzgerald on Radio Luxemburg.[2] She emigrated to the United States in 1959, living with relatives in Detroit while studying geography at Wayne State University.[3] There, she was involved with a short-lived arts project called the Red Door Gallery. In 1964, she met poet and jazz critic John Sinclair, and with 14 other people, they founded the Detroit Artists Workshop on November 1, 1964. That group soon established a network of communal houses, and a performance space and print shop. Arndt began photographing jazz musicians performing in Detroit, including John Coltrane, Miles Davis, Thelonious Monk and Yusuf Lateef.[3] She married John Sinclair in 1965 at the First Unitarian Church of Detroit on Cass Avenue.[3] They had two children, Marion Sunny Sinclair, born in 1967, and Celia Sanchez Mao Sinclair, born in 1970.[4] Art and activism In October 1965, the Detroit Artists Workshop was raided by 25 police officers and six people, including Sinclair's husband John, were arrested on marijuana charges. John Sinclair, already on probation as a result of a previous marijuana arrest, was later sentenced to six months in jail. When he was released in August 1966, Leni organized a party and a rock and roll band called the MC5 performed. At first, the Sinclairs, who were jazz fans, disliked the MC5, but soon they recognized their creativity and became fans. John Sinclair became their manager, and Leni Sinclair started photographing their performances. Her photos of the band have been described as "iconic".[5] When the Grande Ballroom opened on October 6, 1966, Leni Sinclair teamed up with poster artist Gary Grimshaw and formed the Magic Veil Light Company to produce psychedelic light shows during rock and roll performances.[3] On January 24, 1967, the Detroit Artists Workshop was again raided, along with several other locations. Both John and Leni Sinclair were arrested, as were 54 other people. Although most of those arrested were never charged, John Sinclair faced ten years in prison for a third marijuana conviction. Released on bail, he set out with Leni and Grimshaw to reorganize the workshop into Trans-Love Energies Unlimited, named after a lyric in a Donovan song.[3] The new group was organized as a "new total cooperative tribal living and working commune" whose stated purpose was to "promote self reliance and tribal responsibility among the artists, craftsmen and other lovers".[3] Trans-Love's first major event was a Love-in on April 30, 1967 at Belle Isle Park, an island in the Detroit River. The event was peaceful for most of the day, but after members of the Outlaws Motorcycle Club beat a man, a riot started. About 150 police officers dispersed the crowd, clubbing people from horseback. According to Leni Sinclair, who was pregnant at the time, "the police really started the trouble and were blaming us."[3] Less than three months later, the 1967 Detroit riot broke out resulting in 43 deaths, and the destruction of 2000 buildings, mostly by fire. In the aftermath, Trans-Love Energies provided assistance to many people who had been left homeless by the riot. But the police increased their harassment of the group. After two fire bombings, ongoing police harassment, and a curfew in Detroit due to the nationwide wave of urban rioting that followed the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr., Trans-Love abandoned Detroit and relocated to Ann Arbor, settling into two Victorian homes at 1510 and 1520 Hill Street; 28 people lived in the commune.[3] White Panther Party On November 1, 1968, the White Panther Party was formed by Leni Sinclair, John Sinclair, and Pun Plamondon.[6] The organization pledged to support the Black Panther Party and had a ten-point platform that included "total assault on the culture", demanding the end of money, free food, free medical care, free access to information technology, the end of corporate rule, freeing all prisoners, freeing conscripted soldiers, and freedom from "phony leaders".[6][7] Later years The Sinclairs were divorced in 1977 and they then donated their papers to the Bentley Historical Library at the University of Michigan.[1] Leni Sinclair continued doing photography and lived in New Orleans for several years before returning to Detroit in the 1990s. In 1998, a retrospective of her work was held at the Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen in Rotterdam.[3] She has written two books, The Detroit Jazz Who's Who and Detroit Rocks! A Pictorial History of Motor City Rock and Roll 1965-1975. In January 2016, Sinclair was selected as the year's Kresge Eminent Artist, a $50,000 award given by the Kresge Foundation.[8] Leni Sinclair Archive In 2013, Sinclair received a grant from the John S. and James L. Knight Foundation for a one-year project to create a public archive of the previously "disorganized negatives"[5] of 57,000 photos of the Detroit music scene that she has taken over a half century period.[9] Jazz is a music genre that originated in the African-American communities of New Orleans, Louisiana, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with its roots in blues and ragtime.[1][2][3][4] Since the 1920s Jazz Age, it has been recognized as a major form of musical expression in traditional and popular music. Jazz is characterized by swing and blue notes, complex chords, call and response vocals, polyrhythms and improvisation. Jazz has roots in European harmony and African rhythmic rituals.[5][6] As jazz spread around the world, it drew on national, regional, and local musical cultures, which gave rise to different styles. New Orleans jazz began in the early 1910s, combining earlier brass band marches, French quadrilles, biguine, ragtime and blues with collective polyphonic improvisation. But jazz did not begin as a single musical tradition in New Orleans or elsewhere.[7] In the 1930s, arranged dance-oriented swing big bands, Kansas City jazz (a hard-swinging, bluesy, improvisational style), and gypsy jazz (a style that emphasized musette waltzes) were the prominent styles. Bebop emerged in the 1940s, shifting jazz from danceable popular music toward a more challenging "musician's music" which was played at faster tempos and used more chord-based improvisation. Cool jazz developed near the end of the 1940s, introducing calmer, smoother sounds and long, linear melodic lines.[8] The mid-1950s saw the emergence of hard bop, which introduced influences from rhythm and blues, gospel, and blues to small groups and particularly to saxophone and piano. Modal jazz developed in the late 1950s, using the mode, or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation, as did free jazz, which explored playing without regular meter, beat and formal structures. Jazz-rock fusion appeared in the late 1960s and early 1970s, combining jazz improvisation with rock music's rhythms, electric instruments, and highly amplified stage sound. In the early 1980s, a commercial form of jazz fusion called smooth jazz became successful, garnering significant radio airplay. Other styles and genres abound in the 21st century, such as Latin and Afro-Cuban jazz. Etymology and definition Main article: Jazz (word) American jazz composer, lyricist, and pianist Eubie Blake made an early contribution to the genre's etymology. The origin of the word jazz has resulted in considerable research, and its history is well documented. It is believed to be related to jasm, a slang term dating back to 1860 meaning "pep, energy".[9] The earliest written record of the word is in a 1912 article in the Los Angeles Times in which a minor league baseball pitcher described a pitch which he called a "jazz ball" "because it wobbles and you simply can't do anything with it".[9] The use of the word in a musical context was documented as early as 1915 in the Chicago Daily Tribune.[10] Its first documented use in a musical context in New Orleans was in a November 14, 1916, Times-Picayune article about "jas bands".[11] In an interview with National Public Radio, musician Eubie Blake offered his recollections of the slang connotations of the term, saying: "When Broadway picked it up, they called it 'J-A-Z-Z'. It wasn't called that. It was spelled 'J-A-S-S'. That was dirty, and if you knew what it was, you wouldn't say it in front of ladies."[12] The American Dialect Society named it the Word of the 20th Century.[13] Albert Gleizes, 1915, Composition for "Jazz" from the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York Jazz is difficult to define because it encompasses a wide range of music spanning a period of over 100 years, from ragtime to rock-infused fusion. Attempts have been made to define jazz from the perspective of other musical traditions, such as European music history or African music. But critic Joachim-Ernst Berendt argues that its terms of reference and its definition should be broader,[14] defining jazz as a "form of art music which originated in the United States through the confrontation of the Negro with European music"[15] and arguing that it differs from European music in that jazz has a "special relationship to time defined as 'swing'". Jazz involves "a spontaneity and vitality of musical production in which improvisation plays a role" and contains a "sonority and manner of phrasing which mirror the individuality of the performing jazz musician".[14] A broader definition that encompasses different eras of jazz has been proposed by Travis Jackson: "it is music that includes qualities such as swing, improvising, group interaction, developing an 'individual voice', and being open to different musical possibilities".[16] Krin Gibbard argued that "jazz is a construct" which designates "a number of musics with enough in common to be understood as part of a coherent tradition".[17] Duke Ellington, one of jazz's most famous figures, said, "It's all music."[18] Elements Improvisation Main article: Jazz improvisation Although jazz is considered difficult to define, in part because it contains many subgenres, improvisation is one of its defining elements. The centrality of improvisation is attributed to the influence of earlier forms of music such as blues, a form of folk music which arose in part from the work songs and field hollers of African-American slaves on plantations. These work songs were commonly structured around a repetitive call-and-response pattern, but early blues was also improvisational. Classical music performance is evaluated more by its fidelity to the musical score, with less attention given to interpretation, ornamentation, and accompaniment. The classical performer's goal is to play the composition as it was written. In contrast, jazz is often characterized by the product of interaction and collaboration, placing less value on the contribution of the composer, if there is one, and more on the performer.[19] The jazz performer interprets a tune in individual ways, never playing the same composition twice. Depending on the performer's mood, experience, and interaction with band members or audience members, the performer may change melodies, harmonies, and time signatures.[20] In early Dixieland, a.k.a. New Orleans jazz, performers took turns playing melodies and improvising countermelodies. In the swing era of the 1920s–'40s, big bands relied more on arrangements which were written or learned by ear and memorized. Soloists improvised within these arrangements. In the bebop era of the 1940s, big bands gave way to small groups and minimal arrangements in which the melody was stated briefly at the beginning and most of the piece was improvised. Modal jazz abandoned chord progressions to allow musicians to improvise even more. In many forms of jazz, a soloist is supported by a rhythm section of one or more chordal instruments (piano, guitar), double bass, and drums. The rhythm section plays chords and rhythms that outline the composition structure and complement the soloist.[21] In avant-garde and free jazz, the separation of soloist and band is reduced, and there is license, or even a requirement, for the abandoning of chords, scales, and meters. Traditionalism Since the emergence of bebop, forms of jazz that are commercially oriented or influenced by popular music have been criticized. According to Bruce Johnson, there has always been a "tension between jazz as a commercial music and an art form".[16] Regarding the Dixieland jazz revival of the 1940s, Black musicians rejected it as being shallow nostalgia entertainment for white audiences.[22][23] On the other hand, traditional jazz enthusiasts have dismissed bebop, free jazz, and jazz fusion as forms of debasement and betrayal. An alternative view is that jazz can absorb and transform diverse musical styles.[24] By avoiding the creation of norms, jazz allows avant-garde styles to emerge.[16] Diversity in jazz Jazz and race For some African Americans, jazz has drawn attention to African-American contributions to culture and history. For others, jazz is a reminder of "an oppressive and racist society and restrictions on their artistic visions".[25] Amiri Baraka argues that there is a "white jazz" genre that expresses whiteness.[26] White jazz musicians appeared in the Midwest and in other areas throughout the U.S. Papa Jack Laine, who ran the Reliance band in New Orleans in the 1910s, was called "the father of white jazz".[27] The Original Dixieland Jazz Band, whose members were white, were the first jazz group to record, and Bix Beiderbecke was one of the most prominent jazz soloists of the 1920s.[28] The Chicago Style was developed by white musicians such as Eddie Condon, Bud Freeman, Jimmy McPartland, and Dave Tough. Others from Chicago such as Benny Goodman and Gene Krupa became leading members of swing during the 1930s.[29] Many bands included both Black and white musicians. These musicians helped change attitudes toward race in the U.S.[30] Roles of women Main article: Women in jazz Ethel Waters sang "Stormy Weather" at the Cotton Club. Female jazz performers and composers have contributed to jazz throughout its history. Although Betty Carter, Ella Fitzgerald, Adelaide Hall, Billie Holiday, Peggy Lee, Abbey Lincoln, Anita O'Day, Dinah Washington, and Ethel Waters were recognized for their vocal talent, less familiar were bandleaders, composers, and instrumentalists such as pianist Lil Hardin Armstrong, trumpeter Valaida Snow, and songwriters Irene Higginbotham and Dorothy Fields. Women began playing instruments in jazz in the early 1920s, drawing particular recognition on piano.[31] When male jazz musicians were drafted during World War II, many all-female bands replaced them.[31] The International Sweethearts of Rhythm, which was founded in 1937, was a popular band that became the first all-female integrated band in the U.S. and the first to travel with the USO, touring Europe in 1945. Women were members of the big bands of Woody Herman and Gerald Wilson. Beginning in the 1950s, many women jazz instrumentalists were prominent, some sustaining long careers. Some of the most distinctive improvisers, composers, and bandleaders in jazz have been women.[32] Trombonist Melba Liston is acknowledged as the first female horn player to work in major bands and to make a real impact on jazz, not only as a musician but also as a respected composer and arranger, particularly through her collaborations with Randy Weston from the late 1950s into the 1990s.[33][34] Jews in jazz Main article: Jews in jazz Al Jolson in 1929 Jewish Americans played a significant role in jazz. As jazz spread, it developed to encompass many different cultures, and the work of Jewish composers in Tin Pan Alley helped shape the many different sounds that jazz came to incorporate.[35] Jewish Americans were able to thrive in Jazz because of the probationary whiteness that they were allotted at the time.[36] George Bornstein wrote that African Americans were sympathetic to the plight of the Jewish American and vice versa. As disenfranchised minorities themselves, Jewish composers of popular music saw themselves as natural allies with African Americans.[37] The Jazz Singer with Al Jolson is one example of how Jewish Americans were able to bring jazz, music that African Americans developed, into popular culture.[38] Benny Goodman was a vital Jewish American to the progression of Jazz. Goodman was the leader of a racially integrated band named King of Swing. His jazz concert in the Carnegie Hall in 1938 was the first ever to be played there. The concert was described by Bruce Eder as "the single most important jazz or popular music concert in history".[39] Origins and early history Jazz originated in the late-19th to early-20th century. It developed out of many forms of music, including blues, spirituals, hymns, marches, vaudeville song, ragtime, and dance music.[40] It also incorporated interpretations of American and European classical music, entwined with African and slave folk songs and the influences of West African culture.[41] Its composition and style have changed many times throughout the years with each performer's personal interpretation and improvisation, which is also one of the greatest appeals of the genre.[42] Blended African and European music sensibilities Dance in Congo Square in the late 1700s, artist's conception by E. W. Kemble from a century later The late 18th-century painting The Old Plantation, depicting African-Americans on a Virginia plantation dancing to percussion and a banjo By the 18th century, slaves in the New Orleans area gathered socially at a special market, in an area which later became known as Congo Square, famous for its African dances.[43] By 1866, the Atlantic slave trade had brought nearly 400,000 Africans to North America.[44] The slaves came largely from West Africa and the greater Congo River basin and brought strong musical traditions with them.[45] The African traditions primarily use a single-line melody and call-and-response pattern, and the rhythms have a counter-metric structure and reflect African speech patterns.[46] An 1885 account says that they were making strange music (Creole) on an equally strange variety of 'instruments'—washboards, washtubs, jugs, boxes beaten with sticks or bones and a drum made by stretching skin over a flour-barrel.[4][47] Lavish festivals with African-based dances to drums were organized on Sundays at Place Congo, or Congo Square, in New Orleans until 1843.[48] There are historical accounts of other music and dance gatherings elsewhere in the southern United States. Robert Palmer said of percussive slave music: Usually such music was associated with annual festivals, when the year's crop was harvested and several days were set aside for celebration. As late as 1861, a traveler in North Carolina saw dancers dressed in costumes that included horned headdresses and cow tails and heard music provided by a sheepskin-covered "gumbo box", apparently a frame drum; triangles and jawbones furnished the auxiliary percussion. There are quite a few [accounts] from the southeastern states and Louisiana dating from the period 1820–1850. Some of the earliest [Mississippi] Delta settlers came from the vicinity of New Orleans, where drumming was never actively discouraged for very long and homemade drums were used to accompany public dancing until the outbreak of the Civil War.[49] Another influence came from the harmonic style of hymns of the church, which black slaves had learned and incorporated into their own music as spirituals.[50] The origins of the blues are undocumented, though they can be seen as the secular counterpart of the spirituals. However, as Gerhard Kubik points out, whereas the spirituals are homophonic, rural blues and early jazz "was largely based on concepts of heterophony".[51] The blackface Virginia Minstrels in 1843, featuring tambourine, fiddle, banjo, and bones During the early 19th century an increasing number of black musicians learned to play European instruments, particularly the violin, which they used to parody European dance music in their own cakewalk dances. In turn, European American minstrel show performers in blackface popularized the music internationally, combining syncopation with European harmonic accompaniment. In the mid-1800s the white New Orleans composer Louis Moreau Gottschalk adapted slave rhythms and melodies from Cuba and other Caribbean islands into piano salon music. New Orleans was the main nexus between the Afro-Caribbean and African American cultures. African rhythmic retention See also: Traditional sub-Saharan African harmony The Black Codes outlawed drumming by slaves, which meant that African drumming traditions were not preserved in North America, unlike in Cuba, Haiti, and elsewhere in the Caribbean. African-based rhythmic patterns were retained in the United States in large part through "body rhythms" such as stomping, clapping, and patting juba dancing.[52] In the opinion of jazz historian Ernest Borneman, what preceded New Orleans jazz before 1890 was "Afro-Latin music", similar to what was played in the Caribbean at the time.[53] A three-stroke pattern known in Cuban music as tresillo is a fundamental rhythmic figure heard in many different slave musics of the Caribbean, as well as the Afro-Caribbean folk dances performed in New Orleans Congo Square and Gottschalk's compositions (for example "Souvenirs From Havana" (1859)). Tresillo (shown below) is the most basic and most prevalent duple-pulse rhythmic cell in sub-Saharan African music traditions and the music of the African Diaspora.[54][55] \new RhythmicStaff {    \clef percussion    \time 2/4    \repeat volta 2 { c8. c16 r8[ c] } } 0:03 Tresillo is heard prominently in New Orleans second line music and in other forms of popular music from that city from the turn of the 20th century to present.[56] "By and large the simpler African rhythmic patterns survived in jazz ... because they could be adapted more readily to European rhythmic conceptions," jazz historian Gunther Schuller observed. "Some survived, others were discarded as the Europeanization progressed."[57] In the post-Civil War period (after 1865), African Americans were able to obtain surplus military bass drums, snare drums and fifes, and an original African-American drum and fife music emerged, featuring tresillo and related syncopated rhythmic figures.[58] This was a drumming tradition that was distinct from its Caribbean counterparts, expressing a uniquely African-American sensibility. "The snare and bass drummers played syncopated cross-rhythms," observed the writer Robert Palmer, speculating that "this tradition must have dated back to the latter half of the nineteenth century, and it could have not have developed in the first place if there hadn't been a reservoir of polyrhythmic sophistication in the culture it nurtured."[52] Afro-Cuban influence Further information: Music of African heritage in Cuba African-American music began incorporating Afro-Cuban rhythmic motifs in the 19th century when the habanera (Cuban contradanza) gained international popularity.[59] Musicians from Havana and New Orleans would take the twice-daily ferry between both cities to perform, and the habanera quickly took root in the musically fertile Crescent City. John Storm Roberts states that the musical genre habanera "reached the U.S. twenty years before the first rag was published."[60] For the more than quarter-century in which the cakewalk, ragtime, and proto-jazz were forming and developing, the habanera was a consistent part of African-American popular music.[60] Habaneras were widely available as sheet music and were the first written music which was rhythmically based on an African motif (1803).[61] From the perspective of African-American music, the "habanera rhythm" (also known as "congo"),[61] "tango-congo",[62] or tango.[63] can be thought of as a combination of tresillo and the backbeat.[64] The habanera was the first of many Cuban music genres which enjoyed periods of popularity in the United States and reinforced and inspired the use of tresillo-based rhythms in African-American music.     \new Staff <<        \relative c' {            \clef percussion            \time 2/4              \repeat volta 2 { g8. g16 d'8 g, }        }    >> 0:00 New Orleans native Louis Moreau Gottschalk's piano piece "Ojos Criollos (Danse Cubaine)" (1860) was influenced by the composer's studies in Cuba: the habanera rhythm is clearly heard in the left hand.[54]: 125  In Gottschalk's symphonic work "A Night in the Tropics" (1859), the tresillo variant cinquillo appears extensively.[65] The figure was later used by Scott Joplin and other ragtime composers. \new RhythmicStaff {    \clef percussion    \time 2/4    \repeat volta 2 { c8 c16 c r[ c c r] } } 0:00 Comparing the music of New Orleans with the music of Cuba, Wynton Marsalis observes that tresillo is the New Orleans "clavé", a Spanish word meaning "code" or "key", as in the key to a puzzle, or mystery.[66] Although the pattern is only half a clave, Marsalis makes the point that the single-celled figure is the guide-pattern of New Orleans music. Jelly Roll Morton called the rhythmic figure the Spanish tinge and considered it an essential ingredient of jazz.[67] Ragtime Main article: Ragtime Scott Joplin in 1903 The abolition of slavery in 1865 led to new opportunities for the education of freed African Americans. Although strict segregation limited employment opportunities for most blacks, many were able to find work in entertainment. Black musicians were able to provide entertainment in dances, minstrel shows, and in vaudeville, during which time many marching bands were formed. Black pianists played in bars, clubs, and brothels, as ragtime developed.[68][69] Ragtime appeared as sheet music, popularized by African-American musicians such as the entertainer Ernest Hogan, whose hit songs appeared in 1895. Two years later, Vess Ossman recorded a medley of these songs as a banjo solo known as "Rag Time Medley".[70][71] Also in 1897, the white composer William Krell published his "Mississippi Rag" as the first written piano instrumental ragtime piece, and Tom Turpin published his "Harlem Rag", the first rag published by an African-American. Classically trained pianist Scott Joplin produced his "Original Rags" in 1898 and, in 1899, had an international hit with "Maple Leaf Rag", a multi-strain ragtime march with four parts that feature recurring themes and a bass line with copious seventh chords. Its structure was the basis for many other rags, and the syncopations in the right hand, especially in the transition between the first and second strain, were novel at the time.[72] The last four measures of Scott Joplin's "Maple Leaf Rag" (1899) are shown below.  {    \new PianoStaff <<       \new Staff <<          \new Voice \relative c' {              \clef treble \key aes \major \time 2/4              <f aes>16 bes <f aes>8 <fes aes> <fes bes>16 <es aes>~              <es aes> bes' <es, c'> aes bes <es, c'>8 <d aes'>16~              <d aes'> bes' <d, c'> aes' r <des, bes'>8 es16              <c aes'>8 <g' des' es> <aes c es aes>              }             >>      \new Staff <<          \relative c, {              \clef bass \key aes \major \time 2/4              <des des'>8 <des des'> <bes bes'> <d d'>              <es es'> <es' aes c> <es, es'> <e e'>              <f f'> <f f'> <g g'> <g g'> <aes aes'> <es es'> <aes, aes'> \bar "|."              }          >>     >> } 0:06 African-based rhythmic patterns such as tresillo and its variants, the habanera rhythm and cinquillo, are heard in the ragtime compositions of Joplin and Turpin. Joplin's "Solace" (1909) is generally considered to be in the habanera genre:[73][74] both of the pianist's hands play in a syncopated fashion, completely abandoning any sense of a march rhythm. Ned Sublette postulates that the tresillo/habanera rhythm "found its way into ragtime and the cakewalk,"[75] whilst Roberts suggests that "the habanera influence may have been part of what freed black music from ragtime's European bass".[76] Blues Main article: Blues African genesis  { \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c' {   \clef treble \time 6/4   c4^\markup { "C blues scale" } es f fis g bes c2 } }   { \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c' {   \clef treble \time 5/4   c4^\markup { "C minor pentatonic scale" } es f g bes c2 } } A hexatonic blues scale on C, ascending Blues is the name given to both a musical form and a music genre,[77] which originated in African-American communities of primarily the Deep South of the United States at the end of the 19th century from their spirituals, work songs, field hollers, shouts and chants and rhymed simple narrative ballads.[78] The African use of pentatonic scales contributed to the development of blue notes in blues and jazz.[79] As Kubik explains: Many of the rural blues of the Deep South are stylistically an extension and merger of basically two broad accompanied song-style traditions in the west central Sudanic belt: A strongly Arabic/Islamic song style, as found for example among the Hausa. It is characterized by melisma, wavy intonation, pitch instabilities within a pentatonic framework, and a declamatory voice. An ancient west central Sudanic stratum of pentatonic song composition, often associated with simple work rhythms in a regular meter, but with notable off-beat accents.[80] W. C. Handy: early published blues W. C. Handy at 19, 1892 W. C. Handy became interested in folk blues of the Deep South while traveling through the Mississippi Delta. In this folk blues form, the singer would improvise freely within a limited melodic range, sounding like a field holler, and the guitar accompaniment was slapped rather than strummed, like a small drum which responded in syncopated accents, functioning as another "voice".[81] Handy and his band members were formally trained African-American musicians who had not grown up with the blues, yet he was able to adapt the blues to a larger band instrument format and arrange them in a popular music form. Handy wrote about his adopting of the blues: The primitive southern Negro, as he sang, was sure to bear down on the third and seventh tone of the scale, slurring between major and minor. Whether in the cotton field of the Delta or on the Levee up St. Louis way, it was always the same. Till then, however, I had never heard this slur used by a more sophisticated Negro, or by any white man. I tried to convey this effect ... by introducing flat thirds and sevenths (now called blue notes) into my song, although its prevailing key was major ... , and I carried this device into my melody as well.[82] The publication of his "Memphis Blues" sheet music in 1912 introduced the 12-bar blues to the world (although Gunther Schuller argues that it is not really a blues, but "more like a cakewalk").[83] This composition, as well as his later "St. Louis Blues" and others, included the habanera rhythm,[84] and would become jazz standards. Handy's music career began in the pre-jazz era and contributed to the codification of jazz through the publication of some of the first jazz sheet music. New Orleans Main article: Dixieland The Bolden Band around 1905 The music of New Orleans had a profound effect on the creation of early jazz. In New Orleans, slaves could practice elements of their culture such as voodoo and playing drums.[85] Many early jazz musicians played in the bars and brothels of the red-light district around Basin Street called Storyville.[86] In addition to dance bands, there were marching bands which played at lavish funerals (later called jazz funerals). The instruments used by marching bands and dance bands became the instruments of jazz: brass, drums, and reeds tuned in the European 12-tone scale. Small bands contained a combination of self-taught and formally educated musicians, many from the funeral procession tradition. These bands traveled in black communities in the deep south. Beginning in 1914, Creole and African-American musicians played in vaudeville shows which carried jazz to cities in the northern and western parts of the U.S.[87] Jazz became international in 1914, when the Creole Band with cornettist Freddie Keppard performed the first ever jazz concert outside the United States, at the Pantages Playhouse Theatre in Winnipeg, Canada.[88] In New Orleans, a white bandleader named Papa Jack Laine integrated blacks and whites in his marching band. He was known as "the father of white jazz" because of the many top players he employed, such as George Brunies, Sharkey Bonano, and future members of the Original Dixieland Jass Band. During the early 1900s, jazz was mostly performed in African-American and mulatto communities due to segregation laws. Storyville brought jazz to a wider audience through tourists who visited the port city of New Orleans.[89] Many jazz musicians from African-American communities were hired to perform in bars and brothels. These included Buddy Bolden and Jelly Roll Morton in addition to those from other communities, such as Lorenzo Tio and Alcide Nunez. Louis Armstrong started his career in Storyville[90] and found success in Chicago. Storyville was shut down by the U.S. government in 1917.[91] Syncopation Jelly Roll Morton, in Los Angeles, California, c. 1917 or 1918 Cornetist Buddy Bolden played in New Orleans from 1895 to 1906. No recordings by him exist. His band is credited with creating the big four: the first syncopated bass drum pattern to deviate from the standard on-the-beat march.[92] As the example below shows, the second half of the big four pattern is the habanera rhythm.     \new Staff <<        \relative c' {            \clef percussion            \time 4/4              \repeat volta 2 { g8 \xNote a' g, \xNote a' g, \xNote a'16. g,32 g8 <g \xNote a'> }            \repeat volta 2 { r8 \xNote a'\noBeam g, \xNote a' g, \xNote a'16. g,32 g8 <g \xNote a'> }        }    >> 0:00 Afro-Creole pianist Jelly Roll Morton began his career in Storyville. Beginning in 1904, he toured with vaudeville shows to southern cities, Chicago, and New York City. In 1905, he composed "Jelly Roll Blues", which became the first jazz arrangement in print when it was published in 1915. It introduced more musicians to the New Orleans style.[93] Morton considered the tresillo/habanera, which he called the Spanish tinge, an essential ingredient of jazz.[94] "Now in one of my earliest tunes, "New Orleans Blues," you can notice the Spanish tinge. In fact, if you can't manage to put tinges of Spanish in your tunes, you will never be able to get the right seasoning, I call it, for jazz."[67] An excerpt of "New Orleans Blues" is shown below. In the excerpt, the left hand plays the tresillo rhythm, while the right hand plays variations on cinquillo.     {       \new PianoStaff <<         \new Staff <<             \relative c'' {                 \clef treble \key bes \major \time 2/2                 f8 <f, f'> <g g'> <f~ cis'> <f d'> <f f'> <g d' g>4                 r8 <f f'> <g g'> <f~ cis'> <f d'> <f f'> <g d' g>4                 r8 <f d' f> <g d' g> <f~ cis'> <f d'> <f d' f> <g d' g> <f d' f>                 }             >>         \new Staff <<             \relative c {                 \clef bass \key bes \major \time 2/2                 <bes bes'>4. <f' d'>8~ <f d'>4 <f, f'>4                 <bes f' bes>4. <f' d'>8~ <f d'>4 <f, f'>4                 <bes f' bes>4. <f' d'>8~ <f d'>4 <f, f'>4                 }             >>     >> } 0:07 Morton was a crucial innovator in the evolution from the early jazz form known as ragtime to jazz piano, and could perform pieces in either style; in 1938, Morton made a series of recordings for the Library of Congress in which he demonstrated the difference between the two styles. Morton's solos, however, were still close to ragtime, and were not merely improvisations over chord changes as in later jazz, but his use of the blues was of equal importance. Swing in the early 20th century \new RhythmicStaff {    \clef percussion    \time 4/4    \repeat volta 2 { c8^\markup { "Even subdivisions" } c16 c c8 c16 c c8 c16 c c8 c16 c } } 0:00   \new RhythmicStaff {    \clef percussion    \time 4/4    \repeat volta 2 { c8[^\markup { "Swung correlative" } \tuplet 3/2 { c16 r c] }  c8[ \tuplet 3/2 { c16 r c] }  c8[ \tuplet 3/2 { c16 r c] }  c8[ \tuplet 3/2 { c16 r c] } } } 0:00 Morton loosened ragtime's rigid rhythmic feeling, decreasing its embellishments and employing a swing feeling.[95] Swing is the most important and enduring African-based rhythmic technique used in jazz. An oft quoted definition of swing by Louis Armstrong is: "if you don't feel it, you'll never know it."[96] The New Harvard Dictionary of Music states that swing is: "An intangible rhythmic momentum in jazz...Swing defies analysis; claims to its presence may inspire arguments." The dictionary does nonetheless provide the useful description of triple subdivisions of the beat contrasted with duple subdivisions:[97] swing superimposes six subdivisions of the beat over a basic pulse structure or four subdivisions. This aspect of swing is far more prevalent in African-American music than in Afro-Caribbean music. One aspect of swing, which is heard in more rhythmically complex Diaspora musics, places strokes in-between the triple and duple-pulse "grids".[98] New Orleans brass bands are a lasting influence, contributing horn players to the world of professional jazz with the distinct sound of the city whilst helping black children escape poverty. The leader of New Orleans' Camelia Brass Band, D'Jalma Ganier, taught Louis Armstrong to play trumpet; Armstrong would then popularize the New Orleans style of trumpet playing, and then expand it. Like Jelly Roll Morton, Armstrong is also credited with the abandonment of ragtime's stiffness in favor of swung notes. Armstrong, perhaps more than any other musician, codified the rhythmic technique of swing in jazz and broadened the jazz solo vocabulary.[99] The Original Dixieland Jass Band made the music's first recordings early in 1917, and their "Livery Stable Blues" became the earliest released jazz record.[100][101][102][103][104][105][106] That year, numerous other bands made recordings featuring "jazz" in the title or band name, but most were ragtime or novelty records rather than jazz. In February 1918 during World War I, James Reese Europe's "Hellfighters" infantry band took ragtime to Europe,[107][108] then on their return recorded Dixieland standards including "Darktown Strutters' Ball".[109] Other regions In the northeastern United States, a "hot" style of playing ragtime had developed, notably James Reese Europe's symphonic Clef Club orchestra in New York City, which played a benefit concert at Carnegie Hall in 1912.[109][110] The Baltimore rag style of Eubie Blake influenced James P. Johnson's development of stride piano playing, in which the right hand plays the melody, while the left hand provides the rhythm and bassline.[111] In Ohio and elsewhere in the mid-west the major influence was ragtime, until about 1919. Around 1912, when the four-string banjo and saxophone came in, musicians began to improvise the melody line, but the harmony and rhythm remained unchanged. A contemporary account states that blues could only be heard in jazz in the gut-bucket cabarets, which were generally looked down upon by the Black middle-class.[112] The Jazz Age Main article: Jazz Age The King & Carter Jazzing Orchestra photographed in Houston, Texas, January 1921 From 1920 to 1933, Prohibition in the United States banned the sale of alcoholic drinks, resulting in illicit speakeasies which became lively venues of the "Jazz Age", hosting popular music, dance songs, novelty songs, and show tunes. Jazz began to get a reputation as immoral, and many members of the older generations saw it as a threat to the old cultural values by promoting the decadent values of the Roaring 20s. Henry van Dyke of Princeton University wrote, "... it is not music at all. It's merely an irritation of the nerves of hearing, a sensual teasing of the strings of physical passion."[113] The New York Times reported that Siberian villagers used jazz to scare away bears, but the villagers had used pots and pans; another story claimed that the fatal heart attack of a celebrated conductor was caused by jazz.[113] Jazz Me Blues 2:59 The Original Dixieland Jass Band performing "Jazz Me Blues", an example of a jazz piece from 1921 Problems playing this file? See media help. In 1919, Kid Ory's Original Creole Jazz Band of musicians from New Orleans began playing in San Francisco and Los Angeles, where in 1922 they became the first black jazz band of New Orleans origin to make recordings.[114][115] During the same year, Bessie Smith made her first recordings.[116] Chicago was developing "Hot Jazz", and King Oliver joined Bill Johnson. Bix Beiderbecke formed The Wolverines in 1924. Despite its Southern black origins, there was a larger market for jazzy dance music played by white orchestras. In 1918, Paul Whiteman and his orchestra became a hit in San Francisco. He signed a contract with Victor and became the top bandleader of the 1920s, giving hot jazz a white component, hiring white musicians such as Bix Beiderbecke, Jimmy Dorsey, Tommy Dorsey, Frankie Trumbauer, and Joe Venuti. In 1924, Whiteman commissioned George Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue, which was premiered by his orchestra. Jazz began to be recognized as a notable musical form. Olin Downes, reviewing the concert in The New York Times, wrote, "This composition shows extraordinary talent, as it shows a young composer with aims that go far beyond those of his ilk, struggling with a form of which he is far from being master. ... In spite of all this, he has expressed himself in a significant and, on the whole, highly original form. ... His first theme ... is no mere dance-tune ... it is an idea, or several ideas, correlated and combined in varying and contrasting rhythms that immediately intrigue the listener."[117] After Whiteman's band successfully toured Europe, huge hot jazz orchestras in theater pits caught on with other whites, including Fred Waring, Jean Goldkette, and Nathaniel Shilkret. According to Mario Dunkel, Whiteman's success was based on a "rhetoric of domestication" according to which he had elevated and rendered valuable (read "white") a previously inchoate (read "black") kind of music.[118] Louis Armstrong began his career in New Orleans and became one of jazz's most recognizable performers. Whiteman's success caused black artists to follow suit, including Earl Hines (who opened in The Grand Terrace Cafe in Chicago in 1928), Duke Ellington (who opened at the Cotton Club in Harlem in 1927), Lionel Hampton, Fletcher Henderson, Claude Hopkins, and Don Redman, with Henderson and Redman developing the "talking to one another" formula for "hot" swing music.[119] In 1924, Louis Armstrong joined the Fletcher Henderson dance band for a year, as featured soloist. The original New Orleans style was polyphonic, with theme variation and simultaneous collective improvisation. Armstrong was a master of his hometown style, but by the time he joined Henderson's band, he was already a trailblazer in a new phase of jazz, with its emphasis on arrangements and soloists. Armstrong's solos went well beyond the theme-improvisation concept and extemporized on chords, rather than melodies. According to Schuller, by comparison, the solos by Armstrong's bandmates (including a young Coleman Hawkins), sounded "stiff, stodgy", with "jerky rhythms and a grey undistinguished tone quality".[120] The following example shows a short excerpt of the straight melody of "Mandy, Make Up Your Mind" by George W. Meyer and Arthur Johnston (top), compared with Armstrong's solo improvisations (below) (recorded 1924).[121] Armstrong's solos were a significant factor in making jazz a true 20th-century language. After leaving Henderson's group, Armstrong formed his Hot Five band, where he popularized scat singing.[122] Swing in the 1920s and 1930s Main articles: Swing music and 1930s in jazz Benny Goodman (1943) The 1930s belonged to popular swing big bands, in which some virtuoso soloists became as famous as the band leaders. Key figures in developing the "big" jazz band included bandleaders and arrangers Count Basie, Cab Calloway, Jimmy and Tommy Dorsey, Duke Ellington, Benny Goodman, Fletcher Henderson, Earl Hines, Harry James, Jimmie Lunceford, Glenn Miller and Artie Shaw. Although it was a collective sound, swing also offered individual musicians a chance to "solo" and improvise melodic, thematic solos which could at times be complex "important" music. Over time, social strictures regarding racial segregation began to relax in America: white bandleaders began to recruit black musicians and black bandleaders white ones. In the mid-1930s, Benny Goodman hired pianist Teddy Wilson, vibraphonist Lionel Hampton and guitarist Charlie Christian to join small groups. In the 1930s, Kansas City Jazz as exemplified by tenor saxophonist Lester Young marked the transition from big bands to the bebop influence of the 1940s. An early 1940s style known as "jumping the blues" or jump blues used small combos, uptempo music and blues chord progressions, drawing on boogie-woogie from the 1930s. The influence of Duke Ellington Duke Ellington at the Hurricane Club (1943) While swing was reaching the height of its popularity, Duke Ellington spent the late 1920s and 1930s developing an innovative musical idiom for his orchestra. Abandoning the conventions of swing, he experimented with orchestral sounds, harmony, and musical form with complex compositions that still translated well for popular audiences; some of his tunes became hits, and his own popularity spanned from the United States to Europe.[123] Ellington called his music American Music, rather than jazz, and liked to describe those who impressed him as "beyond category".[124] These included many musicians from his orchestra, some of whom are considered among the best in jazz in their own right, but it was Ellington who melded them into one of the most popular jazz orchestras in the history of jazz. He often composed for the style and skills of these individuals, such as "Jeep's Blues" for Johnny Hodges, "Concerto for Cootie" for Cootie Williams (which later became "Do Nothing Till You Hear from Me" with Bob Russell's lyrics), and "The Mooche" for Tricky Sam Nanton and Bubber Miley. He also recorded compositions written by his bandsmen, such as Juan Tizol's "Caravan" and "Perdido", which brought the "Spanish Tinge" to big-band jazz. Several members of the orchestra remained with him for several decades. The band reached a creative peak in the early 1940s, when Ellington and a small hand-picked group of his composers and arrangers wrote for an orchestra of distinctive voices who displayed tremendous creativity.[125] Beginnings of European jazz As only a limited number of American jazz records were released in Europe, European jazz traces many of its roots to American artists such as James Reese Europe, Paul Whiteman, and Lonnie Johnson, who visited Europe during and after World War I. It was their live performances which inspired European audiences' interest in jazz, as well as the interest in all things American (and therefore exotic) which accompanied the economic and political woes of Europe during this time.[126] The beginnings of a distinct European style of jazz began to emerge in this interwar period. British jazz began with a tour by the Original Dixieland Jazz Band in 1919. In 1926, Fred Elizalde and His Cambridge Undergraduates began broadcasting on the BBC. Thereafter jazz became an important element in many leading dance orchestras, and jazz instrumentalists became numerous.[127] This style entered full swing in France with the Quintette du Hot Club de France, which began in 1934. Much of this French jazz was a combination of African-American jazz and the symphonic styles in which French musicians were well-trained; in this, it is easy to see the inspiration taken from Paul Whiteman since his style was also a fusion of the two.[128] Belgian guitarist Django Reinhardt popularized gypsy jazz, a mix of 1930s American swing, French dance hall "musette", and Eastern European folk with a languid, seductive feel; the main instruments were steel stringed guitar, violin, and double bass. Solos pass from one player to another as guitar and bass form the rhythm section. Some researchers believe Eddie Lang and Joe Venuti pioneered the guitar-violin partnership characteristic of the genre,[129] which was brought to France after they had been heard live or on Okeh Records in the late 1920s.[130] Post-war jazz See also: 1940s in jazz, 1950s in jazz, 1960s in jazz, 1970s in jazz, and album era The "classic quintet": Charlie Parker, Tommy Potter, Miles Davis, Dizzy Gillespie, and Max Roach performing at Three Deuces in New York City. Photograph by William P. Gottlieb (August 1947), Library of Congress. The outbreak of World War II marked a turning point for jazz. The swing-era jazz of the previous decade had challenged other popular music as being representative of the nation's culture, with big bands reaching the height of the style's success by the early 1940s; swing acts and big bands traveled with U.S. military overseas to Europe, where it also became popular.[131] Stateside, however, the war presented difficulties for the big-band format: conscription shortened the number of musicians available; the military's need for shellac (commonly used for pressing gramophone records) limited record production; a shortage of rubber (also due to the war effort) discouraged bands from touring via road travel; and a demand by the musicians' union for a commercial recording ban limited music distribution between 1942 and 1944.[132] Many of the big bands who were deprived of experienced musicians because of the war effort began to enlist young players who were below the age for conscription, as was the case with saxophonist Stan Getz's entry in a band as a teenager.[133] This coincided with a nationwide resurgence in the Dixieland style of pre-swing jazz; performers such as clarinetist George Lewis, cornetist Bill Davison, and trombonist Turk Murphy were hailed by conservative jazz critics as more authentic than the big bands.[132] Elsewhere, with the limitations on recording, small groups of young musicians developed a more uptempo, improvisational style of jazz,[131] collaborating and experimenting with new ideas for melodic development, rhythmic language, and harmonic substitution, during informal, late-night jam sessions hosted in small clubs and apartments. Key figures in this development were largely based in New York and included pianists Thelonious Monk and Bud Powell, drummers Max Roach and Kenny Clarke, saxophonist Charlie Parker, and trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie.[132] This musical development became known as bebop.[131] Bebop and subsequent post-war jazz developments featured a wider set of notes, played in more complex patterns and at faster tempos than previous jazz.[133] According to Clive James, bebop was "the post-war musical development which tried to ensure that jazz would no longer be the spontaneous sound of joy ... Students of race relations in America are generally agreed that the exponents of post-war jazz were determined, with good reason, to present themselves as challenging artists rather than tame entertainers."[134] The end of the war marked "a revival of the spirit of experimentation and musical pluralism under which it had been conceived", along with "the beginning of a decline in the popularity of jazz music in America", according to American academic Michael H. Burchett.[131] With the rise of bebop and the end of the swing era after the war, jazz lost its cachet as pop music. Vocalists of the famous big bands moved on to being marketed and performing as solo pop singers; these included Frank Sinatra, Peggy Lee, Dick Haymes, and Doris Day.[133] Older musicians who still performed their pre-war jazz, such as Armstrong and Ellington, were gradually viewed in the mainstream as passé. Other younger performers, such as singer Big Joe Turner and saxophonist Louis Jordan, who were discouraged by bebop's increasing complexity, pursued more lucrative endeavors in rhythm and blues, jump blues, and eventually rock and roll.[131] Some, including Gillespie, composed intricate yet danceable pieces for bebop musicians in an effort to make them more accessible, but bebop largely remained on the fringes of American audiences' purview. "The new direction of postwar jazz drew a wealth of critical acclaim, but it steadily declined in popularity as it developed a reputation as an academic genre that was largely inaccessible to mainstream audiences", Burchett said. "The quest to make jazz more relevant to popular audiences, while retaining its artistic integrity, is a constant and prevalent theme in the history of postwar jazz."[131] During its swing period, jazz had been an uncomplicated musical scene; according to Paul Trynka, this changed in the post-war years: Suddenly jazz was no longer straightforward. There was bebop and its variants, there was the last gasp of swing, there were strange new brews like the progressive jazz of Stan Kenton, and there was a completely new phenomenon called revivalism – the rediscovery of jazz from the past, either on old records or performed live by aging players brought out of retirement. From now on it was no good saying that you liked jazz, you had to specify what kind of jazz. And that is the way it has been ever since, only more so. Today, the word 'jazz' is virtually meaningless without further definition.[133] Bebop Main article: Bebop In the early 1940s, bebop-style performers began to shift jazz from danceable popular music toward a more challenging "musician's music". The most influential bebop musicians included saxophonist Charlie Parker, pianists Bud Powell and Thelonious Monk, trumpeters Dizzy Gillespie and Clifford Brown, and drummer Max Roach. Divorcing itself from dance music, bebop established itself more as an art form, thus lessening its potential popular and commercial appeal. Composer Gunther Schuller wrote: "In 1943 I heard the great Earl Hines band which had Bird in it and all those other great musicians. They were playing all the flatted fifth chords and all the modern harmonies and substitutions and Dizzy Gillespie runs in the trumpet section work. Two years later I read that that was 'bop' and the beginning of modern jazz ... but the band never made recordings."[135] Dizzy Gillespie wrote: "People talk about the Hines band being 'the incubator of bop' and the leading exponents of that music ended up in the Hines band. But people also have the erroneous impression that the music was new. It was not. The music evolved from what went before. It was the same basic music. The difference was in how you got from here to here to here...naturally each age has got its own shit."[136] Since bebop was meant to be listened to, not danced to, it could use faster tempos. Drumming shifted to a more elusive and explosive style, in which the ride cymbal was used to keep time while the snare and bass drum were used for accents. This led to a highly syncopated music with a linear rhythmic complexity.[137] Bebop musicians employed several harmonic devices which were not previously typical in jazz, engaging in a more abstracted form of chord-based improvisation. Bebop scales are traditional scales with an added chromatic passing note;[138] bebop also uses "passing" chords, substitute chords, and altered chords. New forms of chromaticism and dissonance were introduced into jazz, and the dissonant tritone (or "flatted fifth") interval became the "most important interval of bebop"[139] Chord progressions for bebop tunes were often taken directly from popular swing-era tunes and reused with a new and more complex melody and/or reharmonized with more complex chord progressions to form new compositions, a practice which was already well-established in earlier jazz, but came to be central to the bebop style. Bebop made use of several relatively common chord progressions, such as blues (at base, I–IV–V, but often infused with ii–V motion) and "rhythm changes" (I–VI–ii–V) – the chords to the 1930s pop standard "I Got Rhythm". Late bop also moved towards extended forms that represented a departure from pop and show tunes. The harmonic development in bebop is often traced back to a moment experienced by Charlie Parker while performing "Cherokee" at Clark Monroe's Uptown House, New York, in early 1942. "I'd been getting bored with the stereotyped changes that were being used...and I kept thinking there's bound to be something else. I could hear it sometimes. I couldn't play it...I was working over 'Cherokee,' and, as I did, I found that by using the higher intervals of a chord as a melody line and backing them with appropriately related changes, I could play the thing I'd been hearing. It came alive."[140] Gerhard Kubik postulates that harmonic development in bebop sprang from blues and African-related tonal sensibilities rather than 20th-century Western classical music. "Auditory inclinations were the African legacy in [Parker's] life, reconfirmed by the experience of the blues tonal system, a sound world at odds with the Western diatonic chord categories. Bebop musicians eliminated Western-style functional harmony in their music while retaining the strong central tonality of the blues as a basis for drawing upon various African matrices."[140] Samuel Floyd states that blues was both the bedrock and propelling force of bebop, bringing about a new harmonic conception using extended chord structures that led to unprecedented harmonic and melodic variety, a developed and even more highly syncopated, linear rhythmic complexity and a melodic angularity in which the blue note of the fifth degree was established as an important melodic-harmonic device; and reestablishment of the blues as the primary organizing and functional principle.[137] Kubik wrote: While for an outside observer, the harmonic innovations in bebop would appear to be inspired by experiences in Western "serious" music, from Claude Debussy to Arnold Schoenberg, such a scheme cannot be sustained by the evidence from a cognitive approach. Claude Debussy did have some influence on jazz, for example, on Bix Beiderbecke's piano playing. And it is also true that Duke Ellington adopted and reinterpreted some harmonic devices in European contemporary music. West Coast jazz would run into such debts as would several forms of cool jazz, but bebop has hardly any such debts in the sense of direct borrowings. On the contrary, ideologically, bebop was a strong statement of rejection of any kind of eclecticism, propelled by a desire to activate something deeply buried in self. Bebop then revived tonal-harmonic ideas transmitted through the blues and reconstructed and expanded others in a basically non-Western harmonic approach. The ultimate significance of all this is that the experiments in jazz during the 1940s brought back to African-American music several structural principles and techniques rooted in African traditions.[141] These divergences from the jazz mainstream of the time met a divided, sometimes hostile response among fans and musicians, especially swing players who bristled at the new harmonic sounds. To hostile critics, bebop seemed filled with "racing, nervous phrases".[142] But despite the friction, by the 1950s bebop had become an accepted part of the jazz vocabulary. Afro-Cuban jazz (cu-bop) Main article: Afro-Cuban jazz Machito (maracas) and his sister Graciella Grillo (claves) Machito and Mario Bauza The general consensus among musicians and musicologists is that the first original jazz piece to be overtly based in clave was "Tanga" (1943), composed by Cuban-born Mario Bauza and recorded by Machito and his Afro-Cubans in New York City. "Tanga" began as a spontaneous descarga (Cuban jam session), with jazz solos superimposed on top.[143] This was the birth of Afro-Cuban jazz. The use of clave brought the African timeline, or key pattern, into jazz. Music organized around key patterns convey a two-celled (binary) structure, which is a complex level of African cross-rhythm.[144] Within the context of jazz, however, harmony is the primary referent, not rhythm. The harmonic progression can begin on either side of clave, and the harmonic "one" is always understood to be "one". If the progression begins on the "three-side" of clave, it is said to be in 3–2 clave (shown below). If the progression begins on the "two-side", it is in 2–3 clave.[145] \new RhythmicStaff {    \clef percussion    \time 4/4    \repeat volta 2 { c8. c16 r8[ c] r[ c] c4 } } 0:08 Dizzy Gillespie and Chano Pozo Dizzy Gillespie, 1955 Mario Bauzá introduced bebop innovator Dizzy Gillespie to Cuban conga drummer and composer Chano Pozo. Gillespie and Pozo's brief collaboration produced some of the most enduring Afro-Cuban jazz standards. "Manteca" (1947) is the first jazz standard to be rhythmically based on clave. According to Gillespie, Pozo composed the layered, contrapuntal guajeos (Afro-Cuban ostinatos) of the A section and the introduction, while Gillespie wrote the bridge. Gillespie recounted: "If I'd let it go like [Chano] wanted it, it would have been strictly Afro-Cuban all the way. There wouldn't have been a bridge. I thought I was writing an eight-bar bridge, but ... I had to keep going and ended up writing a sixteen-bar bridge."[146] The bridge gave "Manteca" a typical jazz harmonic structure, setting the piece apart from Bauza's modal "Tanga" of a few years earlier. Gillespie's collaboration with Pozo brought specific African-based rhythms into bebop. While pushing the boundaries of harmonic improvisation, cu-bop also drew from African rhythm. Jazz arrangements with a Latin A section and a swung B section, with all choruses swung during solos, became common practice with many Latin tunes of the jazz standard repertoire. This approach can be heard on pre-1980 recordings of "Manteca", "A Night in Tunisia", "Tin Tin Deo", and "On Green Dolphin Street". African cross-rhythm Mongo Santamaria (1969) Cuban percussionist Mongo Santamaria first recorded his composition "Afro Blue" in 1959.[147] "Afro Blue" was the first jazz standard built upon a typical African three-against-two (3:2) cross-rhythm, or hemiola.[148] The piece begins with the bass repeatedly playing 6 cross-beats per each measure of 12 8, or 6 cross-beats per 4 main beats—6:4 (two cells of 3:2). The following example shows the original ostinato "Afro Blue" bass line. The cross noteheads indicate the main beats (not bass notes).     \new Staff <<        \new voice \relative c {            \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"acoustic bass"            \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 105            \time 12/8            \clef bass                   \stemUp \repeat volta 2 { d4 a'8~ a d4 d,4 a'8~ a d4 }        }        \new voice \relative c {            \override NoteHead.style = #'cross            \stemDown \repeat volta 2 { g4. g g g }        }    >> When John Coltrane covered "Afro Blue" in 1963, he inverted the metric hierarchy, interpreting the tune as a 3 4 jazz waltz with duple cross-beats superimposed (2:3). Originally a B♭ pentatonic blues, Coltrane expanded the harmonic structure of "Afro Blue". Perhaps the most respected Afro-cuban jazz combo of the late 1950s was vibraphonist Cal Tjader's band. Tjader had Mongo Santamaria, Armando Peraza, and Willie Bobo on his early recording dates. Dixieland revival In the late 1940s, there was a revival of Dixieland, harking back to the contrapuntal New Orleans style. This was driven in large part by record company reissues of jazz classics by the Oliver, Morton, and Armstrong bands of the 1930s. There were two types of musicians involved in the revival: the first group was made up of those who had begun their careers playing in the traditional style and were returning to it (or continuing what they had been playing all along), such as Bob Crosby's Bobcats, Max Kaminsky, Eddie Condon, and Wild Bill Davison.[149] Most of these players were originally Midwesterners, although there were a small number of New Orleans musicians involved. The second group of revivalists consisted of younger musicians, such as those in the Lu Watters band, Conrad Janis, and Ward Kimball and his Firehouse Five Plus Two Jazz Band. By the late 1940s, Louis Armstrong's Allstars band became a leading ensemble. Through the 1950s and 1960s, Dixieland was one of the most commercially popular jazz styles in the US, Europe, and Japan, although critics paid little attention to it.[149] Hard bop Main article: Hard bop Art Blakey (1973) Hard bop is an extension of bebop (or "bop") music that incorporates influences from blues, rhythm and blues, and gospel, especially in saxophone and piano playing. Hard bop was developed in the mid-1950s, coalescing in 1953 and 1954; it developed partly in response to the vogue for cool jazz in the early 1950s and paralleled the rise of rhythm and blues. It has been described as "funky" and can be considered a relative of soul jazz.[150] Some elements of the genre were simplified from their bebop roots.[151] Miles Davis' 1954 performance of "Walkin'" at the first Newport Jazz Festival introduced the style to the jazz world.[152] Further leaders of hard bop's development included the Clifford Brown/Max Roach Quintet, Art Blakey's Jazz Messengers, the Horace Silver Quintet, and trumpeters Lee Morgan and Freddie Hubbard. The late 1950s to early 1960s saw hard boppers form their own bands as a new generation of blues- and bebop-influenced musicians entered the jazz world, from pianists Wynton Kelly and Tommy Flanagan[153] to saxophonists Joe Henderson and Hank Mobley. Coltrane, Johnny Griffin, Mobley, and Morgan all participated on the album A Blowin' Session (1957), considered by Al Campbell to have been one of the high points of the hard bop era.[154] Hard bop was prevalent within jazz for about a decade spanning from 1955 to 1965,[153] but has remained highly influential on mainstream[151] or "straight-ahead" jazz. It went into decline in the late 1960s through the 1970s due to the emergence of other styles such as jazz fusion, but again became influential following the Young Lions Movement and the emergence of neo-bop.[151] Modal jazz Main article: Modal jazz Modal jazz is a development which began in the later 1950s which takes the mode, or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation. Previously, a solo was meant to fit into a given chord progression, but with modal jazz, the soloist creates a melody using one (or a small number of) modes. The emphasis is thus shifted from harmony to melody:[155] "Historically, this caused a seismic shift among jazz musicians, away from thinking vertically (the chord), and towards a more horizontal approach (the scale)",[156] explained pianist Mark Levine. The modal theory stems from a work by George Russell. Miles Davis introduced the concept to the greater jazz world with Kind of Blue (1959), an exploration of the possibilities of modal jazz which would become the best selling jazz album of all time. In contrast to Davis' earlier work with hard bop and its complex chord progression and improvisation, Kind of Blue was composed as a series of modal sketches in which the musicians were given scales that defined the parameters of their improvisation and style.[157] "I didn't write out the music for Kind of Blue, but brought in sketches for what everybody was supposed to play because I wanted a lot of spontaneity,"[158] recalled Davis. The track "So What" has only two chords: D-7 and E♭-7.[159] Other innovators in this style include Jackie McLean,[160] and two of the musicians who had also played on Kind of Blue: John Coltrane and Bill Evans. Free jazz Main article: Free jazz John Coltrane, 1963 Free jazz, and the related form of avant-garde jazz, broke through into an open space of "free tonality" in which meter, beat, and formal symmetry all disappeared, and a range of world music from India, Africa, and Arabia were melded into an intense, even religiously ecstatic or orgiastic style of playing.[161] While loosely inspired by bebop, free jazz tunes gave players much more latitude; the loose harmony and tempo was deemed controversial when this approach was first developed. The bassist Charles Mingus is also frequently associated with the avant-garde in jazz, although his compositions draw from myriad styles and genres. The first major stirrings came in the 1950s with the early work of Ornette Coleman (whose 1960 album Free Jazz: A Collective Improvisation coined the term) and Cecil Taylor. In the 1960s, exponents included Albert Ayler, Gato Barbieri, Carla Bley, Don Cherry, Larry Coryell, John Coltrane, Bill Dixon, Jimmy Giuffre, Steve Lacy, Michael Mantler, Sun Ra, Roswell Rudd, Pharoah Sanders, and John Tchicai. In developing his late style, Coltrane was especially influenced by the dissonance of Ayler's trio with bassist Gary Peacock and drummer Sunny Murray, a rhythm section honed with Cecil Taylor as leader. In November 1961, Coltrane played a gig at the Village Vanguard, which resulted in the classic Chasin' the 'Trane, which DownBeat magazine panned as "anti-jazz". On his 1961 tour of France, he was booed, but persevered, signing with the new Impulse! Records in 1960 and turning it into "the house that Trane built", while championing many younger free jazz musicians, notably Archie Shepp, who often played with trumpeter Bill Dixon, who organized the 4-day "October Revolution in Jazz" in Manhattan in 1964, the first free jazz festival. A series of recordings with the Classic Quartet in the first half of 1965 show Coltrane's playing becoming increasingly abstract, with greater incorporation of devices like multiphonics, utilization of overtones, and playing in the altissimo register, as well as a mutated return to Coltrane's sheets of sound. In the studio, he all but abandoned his soprano to concentrate on the tenor saxophone. In addition, the quartet responded to the leader by playing with increasing freedom. The group's evolution can be traced through the recordings The John Coltrane Quartet Plays, Living Space and Transition (both June 1965), New Thing at Newport (July 1965), Sun Ship (August 1965), and First Meditations (September 1965). In June 1965, Coltrane and 10 other musicians recorded Ascension, a 40-minute-long piece without breaks that included adventurous solos by young avant-garde musicians as well as Coltrane, and was controversial primarily for the collective improvisation sections that separated the solos. Dave Liebman later called it "the torch that lit the free jazz thing". After recording with the quartet over the next few months, Coltrane invited Pharoah Sanders to join the band in September 1965. While Coltrane used over-blowing frequently as an emotional exclamation-point, Sanders would opt to overblow his entire solo, resulting in a constant screaming and screeching in the altissimo range of the instrument. Free jazz in Europe Peter Brötzmann is a key figure in European free jazz. Free jazz was played in Europe in part because musicians such as Ayler, Taylor, Steve Lacy, and Eric Dolphy spent extended periods of time there, and European musicians such as Michael Mantler and John Tchicai traveled to the U.S. to experience American music firsthand. European contemporary jazz was shaped by Peter Brötzmann, John Surman, Krzysztof Komeda, Zbigniew Namysłowski, Tomasz Stanko, Lars Gullin, Joe Harriott, Albert Mangelsdorff, Kenny Wheeler, Graham Collier, Michael Garrick and Mike Westbrook. They were eager to develop approaches to music that reflected their heritage. Since the 1960s, creative centers of jazz in Europe have developed, such as the creative jazz scene in Amsterdam. Following the work of drummer Han Bennink and pianist Misha Mengelberg, musicians started to explore by improvising collectively until a form (melody, rhythm, a famous song) is found Jazz critic Kevin Whitehead documented the free jazz scene in Amsterdam and some of its main exponents such as the ICP (Instant Composers Pool) orchestra in his book New Dutch Swing. Since the 1990s Keith Jarrett has defended free jazz from criticism. British writer Stuart Nicholson has argued European contemporary jazz has an identity different from American jazz and follows a different trajectory.[162] Latin jazz Main article: Latin jazz Latin jazz is jazz that employs Latin American rhythms and is generally understood to have a more specific meaning than simply jazz from Latin America. A more precise term might be Afro-Latin jazz, as the jazz subgenre typically employs rhythms that either have a direct analog in Africa or exhibit an African rhythmic influence beyond what is ordinarily heard in other jazz. The two main categories of Latin jazz are Afro-Cuban jazz and Brazilian jazz. In the 1960s and 1970s, many jazz musicians had only a basic understanding of Cuban and Brazilian music, and jazz compositions which used Cuban or Brazilian elements were often referred to as "Latin tunes", with no distinction between a Cuban son montuno and a Brazilian bossa nova. Even as late as 2000, in Mark Gridley's Jazz Styles: History and Analysis, a bossa nova bass line is referred to as a "Latin bass figure".[163] It was not uncommon during the 1960s and 1970s to hear a conga playing a Cuban tumbao while the drumset and bass played a Brazilian bossa nova pattern. Many jazz standards such as "Manteca", "On Green Dolphin Street" and "Song for My Father" have a "Latin" A section and a swung B section. Typically, the band would only play an even-eighth "Latin" feel in the A section of the head and swing throughout all of the solos. Latin jazz specialists like Cal Tjader tended to be the exception. For example, on a 1959 live Tjader recording of "A Night in Tunisia", pianist Vince Guaraldi soloed through the entire form over an authentic mambo.[164] Afro-Cuban jazz renaissance For most of its history, Afro-Cuban jazz had been a matter of superimposing jazz phrasing over Cuban rhythms. But by the end of the 1970s, a new generation of New York City musicians had emerged who were fluent in both salsa dance music and jazz, leading to a new level of integration of jazz and Cuban rhythms. This era of creativity and vitality is best represented by the Gonzalez brothers Jerry (congas and trumpet) and Andy (bass).[165] During 1974–1976, they were members of one of Eddie Palmieri's most experimental salsa groups: salsa was the medium, but Palmieri was stretching the form in new ways. He incorporated parallel fourths, with McCoy Tyner-type vamps. The innovations of Palmieri, the Gonzalez brothers and others led to an Afro-Cuban jazz renaissance in New York City. This occurred in parallel with developments in Cuba[166] The first Cuban band of this new wave was Irakere. Their "Chékere-son" (1976) introduced a style of "Cubanized" bebop-flavored horn lines that departed from the more angular guajeo-based lines which were typical of Cuban popular music and Latin jazz up until that time. It was based on Charlie Parker's composition "Billie's Bounce", jumbled together in a way that fused clave and bebop horn lines.[167] In spite of the ambivalence of some band members towards Irakere's Afro-Cuban folkloric / jazz fusion, their experiments forever changed Cuban jazz: their innovations are still heard in the high level of harmonic and rhythmic complexity in Cuban jazz and in the jazzy and complex contemporary form of popular dance music known as timba. Afro-Brazilian jazz Naná Vasconcelos playing the Afro-Brazilian Berimbau Brazilian jazz, such as bossa nova, is derived from samba, with influences from jazz and other 20th-century classical and popular music styles. Bossa is generally moderately paced, with melodies sung in Portuguese or English, whilst the related jazz-samba is an adaptation of street samba into jazz. The bossa nova style was pioneered by Brazilians João Gilberto and Antônio Carlos Jobim and was made popular by Elizete Cardoso's recording of "Chega de Saudade" on the Canção do Amor Demais LP. Gilberto's initial releases, and the 1959 film Black Orpheus, achieved significant popularity in Latin America; this spread to North America via visiting American jazz musicians. The resulting recordings by Charlie Byrd and Stan Getz cemented bossa nova's popularity and led to a worldwide boom, with 1963's Getz/Gilberto, numerous recordings by famous jazz performers such as Ella Fitzgerald and Frank Sinatra, and the eventual entrenchment of the bossa nova style as a lasting influence in world music. Brazilian percussionists such as Airto Moreira and Naná Vasconcelos also influenced jazz internationally by introducing Afro-Brazilian folkloric instruments and rhythms into a wide variety of jazz styles, thus attracting a greater audience to them.[168][169][170] While bossa nova has been labeled as jazz by music critics, namely those from outside of Brazil, it has been rejected by many prominent bossa nova musicians such as Jobim, who once said "Bossa nova is not Brazilian jazz."[171][172] African-inspired Randy Weston Rhythm The first jazz standard composed by a non-Latino to use an overt African 12 8 cross-rhythm was Wayne Shorter's "Footprints" (1967).[173] On the version recorded on Miles Smiles by Miles Davis, the bass switches to a 4 4 tresillo figure at 2:20. "Footprints" is not, however, a Latin jazz tune: African rhythmic structures are accessed directly by Ron Carter (bass) and Tony Williams (drums) via the rhythmic sensibilities of swing. Throughout the piece, the four beats, whether sounded or not, are maintained as the temporal referent. The following example shows the 12 8 and 4 4 forms of the bass line. The slashed noteheads indicate the main beats (not bass notes), where one ordinarily taps their foot to "keep time". {        \relative c, <<         \new Staff <<            \new voice {               \clef bass \time 12/8 \key c \minor               \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 100                     \stemDown \override NoteHead.style = #'cross \repeat volta 2 { es4. es es es }        }           \new voice {               \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 100                    \time 12/8               \stemUp \repeat volta 2 { c'4 g'8~ g c4 es4.~ es4 g,8 } \bar ":|."        } >>        \new Staff <<           \new voice {               \clef bass \time 12/8 \key c \minor               \set Staff.timeSignatureFraction = 4/4               \scaleDurations 3/2 {                   \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 8 = 100                         \stemDown \override NoteHead.style = #'cross \repeat volta 2 { es,4 es es es }               }        }           \new voice \relative c' {               \time 12/8               \set Staff.timeSignatureFraction = 4/4               \scaleDurations 3/2 {                   \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 100                        \stemUp \repeat volta 2 { c,8. g'16~ g8 c es4~ es8. g,16 } \bar ":|."               }        } >>   >> } Pentatonic scales The use of pentatonic scales was another trend associated with Africa. The use of pentatonic scales in Africa probably goes back thousands of years.[174] McCoy Tyner perfected the use of the pentatonic scale in his solos,[175] and also used parallel fifths and fourths, which are common harmonies in West Africa.[176] The minor pentatonic scale is often used in blues improvisation, and like a blues scale, a minor pentatonic scale can be played over all of the chords in a blues. The following pentatonic lick was played over blues changes by Joe Henderson on Horace Silver's "African Queen" (1965).[177] Jazz pianist, theorist, and educator Mark Levine refers to the scale generated by beginning on the fifth step of a pentatonic scale as the V pentatonic scale.[178] C pentatonic scale beginning on the I (C pentatonic), IV (F pentatonic), and V (G pentatonic) steps of the scale.[clarification needed] Levine points out that the V pentatonic scale works for all three chords of the standard II–V–I jazz progression.[179] This is a very common progression, used in pieces such as Miles Davis' "Tune Up". The following example shows the V pentatonic scale over a II–V–I progression.[180] V pentatonic scale over II–V–I chord progression Accordingly, John Coltrane's "Giant Steps" (1960), with its 26 chords per 16 bars, can be played using only three pentatonic scales. Coltrane studied Nicolas Slonimsky's Thesaurus of Scales and Melodic Patterns, which contains material that is virtually identical to portions of "Giant Steps".[181] The harmonic complexity of "Giant Steps" is on the level of the most advanced 20th-century art music. Superimposing the pentatonic scale over "Giant Steps" is not merely a matter of harmonic simplification, but also a sort of "Africanizing" of the piece, which provides an alternate approach for soloing. Mark Levine observes that when mixed in with more conventional "playing the changes", pentatonic scales provide "structure and a feeling of increased space".[182] Sacred and liturgical jazz Main article: Sacred jazz As noted above, jazz has incorporated from its inception aspects of African-American sacred music including spirituals and hymns. Secular jazz musicians often performed renditions of spirituals and hymns as part of their repertoire or isolated compositions such as "Come Sunday", part of "Black and Beige Suite" by Duke Ellington. Later many other jazz artists borrowed from black gospel music. However, it was only after World War II that a few jazz musicians began to compose and perform extended works intended for religious settings and/or as religious expression. Since the 1950s, sacred and liturgical music has been performed and recorded by many prominent jazz composers and musicians.[183] The "Abyssinian Mass" by Wynton Marsalis (Blueengine Records, 2016) is a recent example. Relatively little has been written about sacred and liturgical jazz. In a 2013 doctoral dissertation, Angelo Versace examined the development of sacred jazz in the 1950s using disciplines of musicology and history. He noted that the traditions of black gospel music and jazz were combined in the 1950s to produce a new genre, "sacred jazz".[184] Versace maintained that the religious intent separates sacred from secular jazz. Most prominent in initiating the sacred jazz movement were pianist and composer Mary Lou Williams, known for her jazz masses in the 1950s and Duke Ellington. Prior to his death in 1974 in response to contacts from Grace Cathedral in San Francisco, Duke Ellington wrote three Sacred Concerts: 1965 – A Concert of Sacred Music; 1968 – Second Sacred Concert; 1973 – Third Sacred Concert. The most prominent form of sacred and liturgical jazz is the jazz mass. Although most often performed in a concert setting rather than church worship setting, this form has many examples. An eminent example of composers of the jazz mass was Mary Lou Williams. Williams converted to Catholicism in 1957, and proceeded to compose three masses in the jazz idiom.[185] One was composed in 1968 to honor the recently assassinated Martin Luther King Jr. and the third was commissioned by a pontifical commission. It was performed once in 1975 in St Patrick's Cathedral in New York City. However the Catholic Church has not embraced jazz as appropriate for worship. In 1966 Joe Masters recorded "Jazz Mass" for Columbia Records. A jazz ensemble was joined by soloists and choir using the English text of the Roman Catholic Mass.[186] Other examples include "Jazz Mass in Concert" by Lalo Schiffrin (Aleph Records, 1998, UPC 0651702632725) and "Jazz Mass" by Vince Guaraldi (Fantasy Records, 1965). In England, classical composer Will Todd recorded his "Jazz Missa Brevis" with a jazz ensemble, soloists and the St Martin's Voices on a 2018 Signum Records release, "Passion Music/Jazz Missa Brevis" also released as "Mass in Blue", and jazz organist James Taylor composed "The Rochester Mass" (Cherry Red Records, 2015).[187] In 2013, Versace put forth bassist Ike Sturm and New York composer Deanna Witkowski as contemporary exemplars of sacred and liturgical jazz.[184] Jazz fusion Main article: Jazz fusion Fusion trumpeter Miles Davis in 1989 In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the hybrid form of jazz-rock fusion was developed by combining jazz improvisation with rock rhythms, electric instruments and the highly amplified stage sound of rock musicians such as Jimi Hendrix and Frank Zappa. Jazz fusion often uses mixed meters, odd time signatures, syncopation, complex chords, and harmonies. According to AllMusic: ... until around 1967, the worlds of jazz and rock were nearly completely separate. [However, ...] as rock became more creative and its musicianship improved, and as some in the jazz world became bored with hard bop and did not want to play strictly avant-garde music, the two different idioms began to trade ideas and occasionally combine forces.[188] Miles Davis' new directions In 1969, Davis fully embraced the electric instrument approach to jazz with In a Silent Way, which can be considered his first fusion album. Composed of two side-long suites edited heavily by producer Teo Macero, this quiet, static album would be equally influential to the development of ambient music. As Davis recalls: The music I was really listening to in 1968 was James Brown, the great guitar player Jimi Hendrix, and a new group who had just come out with a hit record, "Dance to the Music", Sly and the Family Stone ... I wanted to make it more like rock. When we recorded In a Silent Way I just threw out all the chord sheets and told everyone to play off of that.[189] Two contributors to In a Silent Way also joined organist Larry Young to create one of the early acclaimed fusion albums: Emergency! (1969) by The Tony Williams Lifetime. Psychedelic-jazz Weather Report Weather Report's self-titled electronic and psychedelic Weather Report debut album caused a sensation in the jazz world on its arrival in 1971, thanks to the pedigree of the group's members (including percussionist Airto Moreira), and their unorthodox approach to music. The album featured a softer sound than would be the case in later years (predominantly using acoustic bass with Shorter exclusively playing soprano saxophone, and with no synthesizers involved), but is still considered a classic of early fusion. It built on the avant-garde experiments which Joe Zawinul and Shorter had pioneered with Miles Davis on Bitches Brew, including an avoidance of head-and-chorus composition in favor of continuous rhythm and movement – but took the music further. To emphasize the group's rejection of standard methodology, the album opened with the inscrutable avant-garde atmospheric piece "Milky Way", which featured by Shorter's extremely muted saxophone inducing vibrations in Zawinul's piano strings while the latter pedaled the instrument. DownBeat described the album as "music beyond category", and awarded it Album of the Year in the magazine's polls that year. Weather Report's subsequent releases were creative funk-jazz works.[190] Jazz-rock Although some jazz purists protested against the blend of jazz and rock, many jazz innovators crossed over from the contemporary hard bop scene into fusion. As well as the electric instruments of rock (such as electric guitar, electric bass, electric piano and synthesizer keyboards), fusion also used the powerful amplification, "fuzz" pedals, wah-wah pedals and other effects that were used by 1970s-era rock bands. Notable performers of jazz fusion included Miles Davis, Eddie Harris, keyboardists Joe Zawinul, Chick Corea, and Herbie Hancock, vibraphonist Gary Burton, drummer Tony Williams (drummer), violinist Jean-Luc Ponty, guitarists Larry Coryell, Al Di Meola, John McLaughlin, Ryo Kawasaki, and Frank Zappa, saxophonist Wayne Shorter and bassists Jaco Pastorius and Stanley Clarke. Jazz fusion was also popular in Japan, where the band Casiopea released more than thirty fusion albums. According to jazz writer Stuart Nicholson, "just as free jazz appeared on the verge of creating a whole new musical language in the 1960s ... jazz-rock briefly suggested the promise of doing the same" with albums such as Williams' Emergency! (1970) and Davis' Agharta (1975), which Nicholson said "suggested the potential of evolving into something that might eventually define itself as a wholly independent genre quite apart from the sound and conventions of anything that had gone before." This development was stifled by commercialism, Nicholson said, as the genre "mutated into a peculiar species of jazz-inflected pop music that eventually took up residence on FM radio" at the end of the 1970s.[191] Electronic music Although jazz-rock fusion reached the height of its popularity in the 1970s, the use of electronic instruments and rock-derived musical elements in jazz continued in the 1990s and 2000s. Musicians using this approach include Pat Metheny, John Abercrombie, John Scofield and the Swedish group e.s.t. Since the beginning of the 1990s, electronic music had significant technical improvements that popularized and created new possibilities for the genre. Jazz elements such as improvisation, rhythmic complexities and harmonic textures were introduced to the genre and consequently had a big impact in new listeners and in some ways kept the versatility of jazz relatable to a newer generation that did not necessarily relate to what the traditionalists call real jazz (bebop, cool and modal jazz).[192] Artists such as Squarepusher, Aphex Twin, Flying Lotus and sub genres like IDM, drum 'n' bass, jungle and techno ended up incorporating a lot of these elements.[193] Squarepusher being cited as one big influence for jazz performers drummer Mark Guiliana and pianist Brad Mehldau, showing the correlations between jazz and electronic music are a two-way street.[194] Jazz-funk Main article: Jazz-funk By the mid-1970s, the sound known as jazz-funk had developed, characterized by a strong back beat (groove), electrified sounds[195] and, often, the presence of electronic analog synthesizers. Jazz-funk also draws influences from traditional African music, Afro-Cuban rhythms and Jamaican reggae, notably Kingston bandleader Sonny Bradshaw. Another feature is the shift of emphasis from improvisation to composition: arrangements, melody and overall writing became important. The integration of funk, soul, and R&B music into jazz resulted in the creation of a genre whose spectrum is wide and ranges from strong jazz improvisation to soul, funk or disco with jazz arrangements, jazz riffs and jazz solos, and sometimes soul vocals.[196] Early examples are Herbie Hancock's Headhunters band and Miles Davis' On the Corner album, which, in 1972, began Davis' foray into jazz-funk and was, he claimed, an attempt at reconnecting with the young black audience which had largely forsaken jazz for rock and funk. While there is a discernible rock and funk influence in the timbres of the instruments employed, other tonal and rhythmic textures, such as the Indian tambora and tablas and Cuban congas and bongos, create a multi-layered soundscape. The album was a culmination of sorts of the musique concrète approach that Davis and producer Teo Macero had begun to explore in the late 1960s. Straight-ahead jazz Main articles: Straight-ahead jazz and 1980s in jazz Wynton Marsalis The 1980s saw something of a reaction against the fusion and free jazz that had dominated the 1970s. Trumpeter Wynton Marsalis emerged early in the decade, and strove to create music within what he believed was the tradition, rejecting both fusion and free jazz and creating extensions of the small and large forms initially pioneered by artists such as Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington, as well as the hard bop of the 1950s. It is debatable whether Marsalis' critical and commercial success was a cause or a symptom of the reaction against Fusion and Free Jazz and the resurgence of interest in the kind of jazz pioneered in the 1960s (particularly modal jazz and post-bop); nonetheless there were many other manifestations of a resurgence of traditionalism, even if fusion and free jazz were by no means abandoned and continued to develop and evolve. For example, several musicians who had been prominent in the fusion genre during the 1970s began to record acoustic jazz once more, including Chick Corea and Herbie Hancock. Other musicians who had experimented with electronic instruments in the previous decade had abandoned them by the 1980s; for example, Bill Evans, Joe Henderson, and Stan Getz. Even the 1980s music of Miles Davis, although certainly still fusion, adopted a far more accessible and recognizably jazz-oriented approach than his abstract work of the mid-1970s, such as a return to a theme-and-solos approach. A similar reaction[vague] took place against free jazz. According to Ted Gioia: the very leaders of the avant garde started to signal a retreat from the core principles of free jazz. Anthony Braxton began recording standards over familiar chord changes. Cecil Taylor played duets in concert with Mary Lou Williams, and let her set out structured harmonies and familiar jazz vocabulary under his blistering keyboard attack. And the next generation of progressive players would be even more accommodating, moving inside and outside the changes without thinking twice. Musicians such as David Murray or Don Pullen may have felt the call of free-form jazz, but they never forgot all the other ways one could play African-American music for fun and profit.[197] Pianist Keith Jarrett—whose bands of the 1970s had played only original compositions with prominent free jazz elements—established his so-called 'Standards Trio' in 1983, which, although also occasionally exploring collective improvisation, has primarily performed and recorded jazz standards. Chick Corea similarly began exploring jazz standards in the 1980s, having neglected them for the 1970s. In 1987, the United States House of Representatives and Senate passed a bill proposed by Democratic Representative John Conyers Jr. to define jazz as a unique form of American music, stating "jazz is hereby designated as a rare and valuable national American treasure to which we should devote our attention, support and resources to make certain it is preserved, understood and promulgated." It passed in the House on September 23, 1987, and in the Senate on November 4, 1987.[198] In 2001, Ken Burns's documentary Jazz premiered on PBS, featuring Wynton Marsalis and other experts reviewing the entire history of American jazz to that time. It received some criticism, however, for its failure to reflect the many distinctive non-American traditions and styles in jazz that had developed, and its limited representation of US developments in the last quarter of the 20th century. Neo-bop Main article: Neo-bop The emergence of young jazz talent beginning to perform in older, established musicians' groups further impacted the resurgence of traditionalism in the jazz community. In the 1970s, the groups of Betty Carter and Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers retained their conservative jazz approaches in the midst of fusion and jazz-rock, and in addition to difficulty booking their acts, struggled to find younger generations of personnel to authentically play traditional styles such as hard bop and bebop. In the late 1970s, however, a resurgence of younger jazz players in Blakey's band began to occur. This movement included musicians such as Valery Ponomarev and Bobby Watson, Dennis Irwin and James Williams. In the 1980s, in addition to Wynton and Branford Marsalis, the emergence of pianists in the Jazz Messengers such as Donald Brown, Mulgrew Miller, and later, Benny Green, bassists such as Charles Fambrough, Lonnie Plaxico (and later, Peter Washington and Essiet Essiet) horn players such as Bill Pierce, Donald Harrison and later Javon Jackson and Terence Blanchard emerged as talented jazz musicians, all of whom made significant contributions in the 1990s and 2000s. The young Jazz Messengers' contemporaries, including Roy Hargrove, Marcus Roberts, Wallace Roney and Mark Whitfield were also influenced by Wynton Marsalis's emphasis toward jazz tradition. These younger rising stars rejected avant-garde approaches and instead championed the acoustic jazz sound of Charlie Parker, Thelonious Monk and early recordings of the first Miles Davis quintet. This group of "Young Lions" sought to reaffirm jazz as a high art tradition comparable to the discipline of classical music.[199] In addition, Betty Carter's rotation of young musicians in her group foreshadowed many of New York's preeminent traditional jazz players later in their careers. Among these musicians were Jazz Messenger alumni Benny Green, Branford Marsalis and Ralph Peterson Jr., as well as Kenny Washington, Lewis Nash, Curtis Lundy, Cyrus Chestnut, Mark Shim, Craig Handy, Greg Hutchinson and Marc Cary, Taurus Mateen and Geri Allen. O.T.B. ensemble included a rotation of young jazz musicians such as Kenny Garrett, Steve Wilson, Kenny Davis, Renee Rosnes, Ralph Peterson Jr., Billy Drummond, and Robert Hurst.[200] Starting in the 1990s, a number of players from largely straight-ahead or post-bop backgrounds emerged as a result of the rise of neo-traditionalist jazz, including pianists Jason Moran and Vijay Iyer, guitarist Kurt Rosenwinkel, vibraphonist Stefon Harris, trumpeters Roy Hargrove and Terence Blanchard, saxophonists Chris Potter and Joshua Redman, clarinetist Ken Peplowski and bassist Christian McBride. Smooth jazz Main article: Smooth jazz David Sanborn, 2008 In the early 1980s, a commercial form of jazz fusion called "pop fusion" or "smooth jazz" became successful, garnering significant radio airplay in "quiet storm" time slots at radio stations in urban markets across the U.S. This helped to establish or bolster the careers of vocalists including Al Jarreau, Anita Baker, Chaka Khan, and Sade, as well as saxophonists including Grover Washington Jr., Kenny G, Kirk Whalum, Boney James, and David Sanborn. In general, smooth jazz is downtempo (the most widely played tracks are of 90–105 beats per minute), and has a lead melody-playing instrument (saxophone, especially soprano and tenor, and legato electric guitar are popular). In his Newsweek article "The Problem With Jazz Criticism",[201] Stanley Crouch considers Miles Davis' playing of fusion to be a turning point that led to smooth jazz. Critic Aaron J. West has countered the often negative perceptions of smooth jazz, stating: I challenge the prevalent marginalization and malignment of smooth jazz in the standard jazz narrative. Furthermore, I question the assumption that smooth jazz is an unfortunate and unwelcomed evolutionary outcome of the jazz-fusion era. Instead, I argue that smooth jazz is a long-lived musical style that merits multi-disciplinary analyses of its origins, critical dialogues, performance practice, and reception.[202] Acid jazz, nu jazz, and jazz rap Main articles: Acid jazz, Nu jazz, and Jazz rap Acid jazz developed in the UK in the 1980s and 1990s, influenced by jazz-funk and electronic dance music. Acid jazz often contains various types of electronic composition (sometimes including sampling or live DJ cutting and scratching), but it is just as likely to be played live by musicians, who often showcase jazz interpretation as part of their performance. Richard S. Ginell of AllMusic considers Roy Ayers "one of the prophets of acid jazz".[203] Nu jazz is influenced by jazz harmony and melodies, and there are usually no improvisational aspects. It can be very experimental in nature and can vary widely in sound and concept. It ranges from the combination of live instrumentation with the beats of jazz house (as exemplified by St Germain, Jazzanova, and Fila Brazillia) to more band-based improvised jazz with electronic elements (for example, The Cinematic Orchestra, Kobol and the Norwegian "future jazz" style pioneered by Bugge Wesseltoft, Jaga Jazzist, and Nils Petter Molvær). Jazz rap developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s and incorporates jazz influences into hip hop. In 1988, Gang Starr released the debut single "Words I Manifest", which sampled Dizzy Gillespie's 1962 "Night in Tunisia", and Stetsasonic released "Talkin' All That Jazz", which sampled Lonnie Liston Smith. Gang Starr's debut LP No More Mr. Nice Guy (1989) and their 1990 track "Jazz Thing" sampled Charlie Parker and Ramsey Lewis. The groups which made up the Native Tongues Posse tended toward jazzy releases: these include the Jungle Brothers' debut Straight Out the Jungle (1988), and A Tribe Called Quest's People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm (1990) and The Low End Theory (1991). Rap duo Pete Rock & CL Smooth incorporated jazz influences on their 1992 debut Mecca and the Soul Brother. Rapper Guru's Jazzmatazz series began in 1993 using jazz musicians during the studio recordings. Although jazz rap had achieved little mainstream success, Miles Davis' final album Doo-Bop (released posthumously in 1992) was based on hip hop beats and collaborations with producer Easy Mo Bee. Davis' ex-bandmate Herbie Hancock also absorbed hip-hop influences in the mid-1990s, releasing the album Dis Is Da Drum in 1994. The mid-2010s saw an increased influence of R&B, hip-hop, and pop music on jazz. In 2015, Kendrick Lamar released his third studio album, To Pimp a Butterfly. The album heavily featured prominent contemporary jazz artists such as Thundercat[204] and redefined jazz rap with a larger focus on improvisation and live soloing rather than simply sampling. In that same year, saxophonist Kamasi Washington released his nearly three-hour long debut, The Epic. Its hip-hop inspired beats and R&B vocal interludes was not only acclaimed by critics for being innovative in keeping jazz relevant,[205] but also sparked a small resurgence in jazz on the internet. Punk jazz and jazzcore John Zorn performing in 2006 The relaxation of orthodoxy which was concurrent with post-punk in London and New York City led to a new appreciation of jazz. In London, the Pop Group began to mix free jazz and dub reggae into their brand of punk rock.[206] In New York, No Wave took direct inspiration from both free jazz and punk. Examples of this style include Lydia Lunch's Queen of Siam,[207] Gray, the work of James Chance and the Contortions (who mixed Soul with free jazz and punk)[207] and the Lounge Lizards[207] (the first group to call themselves "punk jazz"). John Zorn took note of the emphasis on speed and dissonance that was becoming prevalent in punk rock, and incorporated this into free jazz with the release of the Spy vs. Spy album in 1986, a collection of Ornette Coleman tunes done in the contemporary thrashcore style.[208] In the same year, Sonny Sharrock, Peter Brötzmann, Bill Laswell, and Ronald Shannon Jackson recorded the first album under the name Last Exit, a similarly aggressive blend of thrash and free jazz.[209] These developments are the origins of jazzcore, the fusion of free jazz with hardcore punk. M-Base Main article: M-Base Steve Coleman in Paris, July 2004 The M-Base movement started in the 1980s, when a loose collective of young African-American musicians in New York which included Steve Coleman, Greg Osby, and Gary Thomas developed a complex but grooving[210] sound. In the 1990s, most M-Base participants turned to more conventional music, but Coleman, the most active participant, continued developing his music in accordance with the M-Base concept.[211] Coleman's audience decreased, but his music and concepts influenced many musicians, according to pianist Vijay Iver and critic Ben Ratlifff of The New York Times.[212][213] M-Base changed from a movement of a loose collective of young musicians to a kind of informal Coleman "school",[214] with a much advanced but already originally implied concept.[215] Steve Coleman's music and M-Base concept gained recognition as "next logical step" after Charlie Parker, John Coltrane, and Ornette Coleman.[216] Jazz pluralism Since the 1990s, jazz has been characterized by a pluralism in which no one style dominates, but rather a wide range of styles and genres are popular. Individual performers often play in a variety of styles, sometimes in the same performance. Pianist Brad Mehldau and The Bad Plus have explored contemporary rock music within the context of the traditional jazz acoustic piano trio, recording instrumental jazz versions of songs by rock musicians. The Bad Plus have also incorporated elements of free jazz into their music. A firm avant-garde or free jazz stance has been maintained by some players, such as saxophonists Greg Osby and Charles Gayle, while others, such as James Carter, have incorporated free jazz elements into a more traditional framework. Joan Chamorro (bass), Andrea Motis (trumpet), and Ignasi Terraza (piano) in 2018 Harry Connick Jr. began his career playing stride piano and the Dixieland jazz of his home, New Orleans, beginning with his first recording when he was 10 years old.[217] Some of his earliest lessons were at the home of pianist Ellis Marsalis.[218] Connick had success on the pop charts after recording the soundtrack to the movie When Harry Met Sally, which sold over two million copies.[217] Crossover success has also been achieved by Diana Krall, Norah Jones, Cassandra Wilson, Kurt Elling, and Jamie Cullum. Additionally, the era saw the release of recordings and videos from the previous century, such as a Just Jazz tape broadcast by a band led by Gene Ammons[219] and studio archives such as Just Coolin' by Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers.[220] Social media An internet-aided trend of 2010's jazz was that of extreme reharmonization, inspired by both virtuosic players known for their speed and rhythm such as Art Tatum, as well as players known for their ambitious voicings and chords such as Bill Evans. Supergroup Snarky Puppy adopted this trend, allowing players like Cory Henry[221] to shape the grooves and harmonies of modern jazz soloing. YouTube phenomenon Jacob Collier also gained recognition for his ability to play an incredibly large number of instruments and his ability to use microtones, advanced polyrhythms, and blend a spectrum of genres in his largely homemade production process.[222][223] Other jazz musicians gained popularity through social media during the 2010s and 2020s. These included Joan Chamorro, a bassist and bandleader based in Barcelona whose big band and jazz combo videos have received tens of millions of views on YouTube,[224] and Emmet Cohen, who broadcast a series of performances live from New York starting in March 2020.[225] See also icon Jazz portal Music portal flag United States portal Jazz (Henri Matisse) Jazz piano Jazz royalty Victorian Jazz Archive Hogan Jazz Archive International Jazz Day Bibliography of jazz Timeline of jazz education List of certified jazz recordings List of jazz festivals List of jazz genres List of jazz musicians List of jazz standards List of jazz venues List of jazz venues in the United States
  • Condition: Used
  • Type: Photograph
  • Year of Production: 1974

PicClick Insights - Eddie Jefferson Jazz Lyricit Vocalist Photo By Leni Sinclair Bassist Fantastic B PicClick Exclusive

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