Coins are pieces of hard material used primarily as a medium of exchange or legal tender. They are standardized in weight, and produced in large quantities at a mint in order to facilitate trade. They are most often issued by a government. Coins are usually metal or alloy metal, or sometimes made of synthetic materials. They are usually disc shaped. Coins made of valuable metal are stored in large quantities as bullion coins. Other coins are used as money in everyday transactions, circulating alongside banknotes: these coins are usually worth less than banknotes: usually the highest value coin in circulation (i.e. excluding bullion coins) is worth less than the lowest-value note. In the last hundred years, the face value of circulation coins has occasionally been lower than the value of the metal they contain, for example due to inflation. If the difference becomes significant, the issuing authority may decide to withdraw these coins from circulation, or the general public may decide to melt the coins down or hoard them (see Gresham's law). Exceptions to the rule of face value being higher than content value also occur for some bullion coins made of silver or gold (and, rarely, other metals, such as platinum or palladium), intended for collectors or investors in precious metals. Examples of modern gold collector/investor coins include the British sovereign minted by the United Kingdom, the American Gold Eagle minted by the United States, the Canadian Gold Maple Leaf minted by Canada, and the Krugerrand, minted by South Africa. The American Gold Eagle has a face value of US$50, and the Canadian Gold Maple Leaf coins also have nominal (purely symbolic) face values (e.g. C$50 for 1 oz.); but the Krugerrand does not. Historically, a great quantity of coinage metals (including alloys) and other materials (e.g. porcelain) have been used to produce coins for circulation, collection, and metal investment: bullion coins often serve as more convenient stores of assured metal quantity and purity than other bullion.[1] Today, the term coin can also be used in reference to digital currencies which are not issued by a state. As of 2013, examples include BitCoin and LiteCoin, among others. As coins have long been used as money, in some languages the same word is used for "coin" and "currency". Numismatics Claudius II coin (colourised).png Currency Coins · Banknotes · Forgery Community currencies Company scrip · Coal scrip · LETS · Time dollars Fictional currencies History Ancient currencies Greek · Roman · China · India Byzantine Medieval currencies Modern currencies Africa · The Americas · Europe · Asia · Oceania Production Mint · Designers · Coining · Milling · Hammering · Cast Exonumia Credit cards · Medals · Tokens · Cheques Notaphily Banknotes Scripophily Stocks · Bonds The first coins were developed independently in Iron Age Anatolia and Archaic Greece, India & China around 600-700 BC. Coins spread rapidly in the 6th and 5th centuries BC, throughout Greece and Persia, and further to the Balkans.[2] Standardized Roman currency was used throughout the Roman Empire. Important Roman gold and silver coins were continued into the Middle Ages (see Gold dinar, Solidus, Aureus, Denarius). Ancient and early medieval coins in theory had the value of their metal content, although there have been many instances throughout history of the metal content of coins being debased, so that the inferior coins were worth less in metal than their face value. Fiat money first arose in medieval China, with the jiaozi paper money. Early paper money was introduced in Europe in the later Middle Ages, but some coins continued to have the value of the gold or silver they contained throughout the Early Modern period. The penny was mint (coin)ed as a silver coin until the 17th century. The first copper pennies were minted in the United States in the 1790s.[3][citation needed] Silver content was reduced in many coins in the 19th century (use of billon), and the first coins made entirely of base metal (e.g. nickel, cupronickel, aluminium bronze), representing values higher than the value of their metal, were minted in the mid 19th century. Bronze Age predecessors[edit] An Oxhide ingot from Crete. Late Bronze Age metal ingots were given standard shapes, such as the shape of an "ox-hide", suggesting that they represented standardized values. Coins were an evolution of "currency" systems of the Late Bronze Age, where standard-sized ingots, and tokens such as knife money, were used to store and transfer value. In the late Chinese Bronze Age, standardized cast tokens were made, such as those discovered in a tomb near Anyang.[4][5] These were replicas in bronze of earlier Chinese money, cowrie shells, so they were named Bronze Shell.[6][7][8] These, as well as later Chinese bronzes, were replicas of knives, spades, and hoes, but not "coins" in the narrow sense, as they did not carry a mark or marks certifying them to be of a definite exchange value.[9] Iron Age[edit] Further information: Archaic period of ancient Greek coinage 1/3rd stater from Lydia, 6th century BC. Electrum coin from Ephesus, 620-600 BC. Obverse: Forepart of stag. Reverse: Square incuse punch. Anatolian gold coin from 4th century BC Mysia. Greek drachma of Aegina. Obverse: Land Chelone / Reverse: ΑΙΓ(INA) and dolphin. The oldest Aegina Chelone coins depicted sea turtles and were minted ca. 700 BC.[10] The earliest coins are mostly associated with Iron Age Anatolia, especially with the kingdom of Lydia.[11] Early electrum coins were not standardized in weight, and in their earliest stage may have been ritual objects, such as badges or medals, issued by priests.[12] Many early Lydian and Greek coins were minted under the authority of private individuals and are thus more akin to tokens or badges than to modern coins,[13] though due to their numbers it is evident that some were official state issues, with King Alyattes of Lydia being a frequently mentioned originator of coinage.[14] The first Lydian coins were made of electrum, a naturally occurring alloy of silver and gold that was further alloyed with added silver and copper.[15] Most of the early Lydian coins include no writing ("legend" or "inscription"), only an image of a symbolic animal. Therefore the dating of these coins relies primarily on archaeological evidence, with the most commonly cited evidence coming from excavations at the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, also called the Ephesian Artemision (which would later evolve into one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World). Because the oldest lion head "coins" were discovered in that temple, and they do not appear to have been used in commerce, these objects may not have been coins but badges or medals issued by the priests of that temple. Anatolian Artemis was the Πὀτνια Θηρῶν (Potnia Thêrôn, "Mistress of Animals"), whose symbol was the stag. A small percentage of early Lydian/Greek coins have a legend.[16] A famous early electrum coin, the most ancient inscribed coin at present known, is from nearby Caria. This coin has a Greek legend reading phaenos emi sema [17] interpreted variously as "I am the badge of Phanes", or "I am the sign of light",[18] or "I am the tomb of light", or "I am the tomb of Phanes". The coins of Phanes are known to be amongst the earliest of Greek coins, a hemihekte of the issue was found in the foundation deposit of the temple of Artemis at Ephesos (the oldest deposit of electrum coins discovered). One assumption is that Phanes was a wealthy merchant, another that this coin is associated with Apollo-Phanes and, due to the Deer, with Artemis (twin sister of the god of light Apollo-Phaneos). Although only seven Phanes type coins were discovered, it is also notable that 20% of all early electrum coins also have the lion of Artemis and the sun burst of Apollo-Phaneos. Alternatively, Phanes may have been the Halicarnassian mercenary of Amasis mentioned by Herodotus, who escaped to the court of Cambyses, and became his guide in the invasion of Egypt in 527 or 525 BC. According to Herodotus, this Phanes was buried alive by a sandstorm, together with 50,000 Persian soldiers, while trying to conquer the temple of Amun–Zeus in Egypt.[19] The fact that the Greek word "Phanes" also means light (or lamp), and the word "sema" also means tomb makes this coin a famous and controversial one.[20] Another candidate for the site of the earliest coins is Aegina, where Chelone ("turtle") coins were first minted on 700 BC,[21] either by the local Aegina people or by Pheidon king of Argos (who first set the standards of weights and measures). In the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, there is a unique electrum stater of Aegina.[10][22][unreliable source?] Coins from Athens and Corinth appeared shortly thereafter, known to exist at least since the late 6th century BC.[23] Classical Antiquity[edit] Further information: Ancient Greek coinage, Achaemenid coinage, Illyrian coinage, Roman currency, Coinage of India, Aureus, Solidus (coin), Denarius, and Antoninianus Set of three roman aurei depicting the rulers of the Flavian dynasty. Top to bottom: Vespasian, Titus and Domitian. 69-96 AD. Coinage followed Greek colonization and influence first around the Mediterranean and soon after to North Africa (including Egypt), Syria, Persia, and the Balkans.[24] Coins were minted in the Achaemenid Empire, including the gold darics and silver sigloi. and with the Achemenid conquest of Gandhara under Darius the Great ca. 520 BC, the practice spread to the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The coins of this period were called Puranas, Karshapanas or Pana.[25] These earliest Indian coins, however, are unlike those circulated in Persia, which were derived from the Greek/Anatolian type; they not disk-shaped but rather stamped bars of metal, suggesting that the innovation of stamped currency was added to a pre-existing form of token currency which had already been present in the Mahajanapada kingdoms of the Indian Iron Age. Mahajanapadas that minted their own coins included Gandhara, Kuntala, Kuru, Panchala, Shakya, Surasena and Surashtra.[26] In China, early round coins appear in the 4th century BC. The first Roman coins, which were crude, heavy cast bronzes, were issued ca. 289 B Most coins presently are made of a base metal, and their value comes from their status as fiat money. This means that the value of the coin is decreed by government fiat (law), and thus is determined by the free market only inasmuch as national currencies are used in domestic trade and also traded internationally on foreign exchange markets. Thus these coins are monetary tokens, just as paper currency is: they are usually not backed by metal, but rather by some form of government guarantee. Some have suggested that such coins not be considered to be "true coins" (see below). Thus there is very little economic difference between notes and coins of equivalent face value. Coins may be in circulation with fiat values lower than the value of their component metals, but they are never initially issued with such value, and the shortfall only arises over time due to inflation, as market values for the metal overtake the fiat declared face value of the coin. Examples are the pre-1965 US dime, quarter, half dollar, and dollar, US nickel, and pre-1982 US penny. As a result of the increase in the value of copper, the United States greatly reduced the amount of copper in each penny. Since mid-1982, United States pennies are made of 97.5% zinc, with the remaining 2.5% being a coating of copper. Extreme differences between fiat values and metal values of coins causes coins to be hoarded or removed from circulation by illicit smelters in order to realise the value of their metal content. This is an example of Gresham's law. The United States Mint, in an attempt to avoid this, implemented new interim rules on December 14, 2006, subject to public comment for 30 days, which criminalized the melting and export of pennies and nickels.[30] Violators can be fined up to $10,000 and/or imprisoned for up to five years. A coin's value as a collector's item or as an investment generally depends on its condition, specific historical significance, rarity, quality/beauty of the design and general popularity with collectors. If a coin is greatly lacking in all of these, it is unlikely to be worth much. The value of bullion coins is also influenced to some extent by those factors, but is largely based on the value of their gold, silver, or platinum content. Sometimes non-monetized bullion coins such as the Canadian Maple Leaf and the American Gold Eagle are minted with nominal face values less than the value of the metal in them, but as such coins are never intended for circulation, these face values have no relevance. Coins can be used as creative medium of expression – from fine art sculpture to the penny machines that can be found in most amusement parks. In the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) in the United States there are some regulations specific to nickels and pennies that are informative on this topic. 31 CFR § 82.1 forbids unauthorized persons from exporting, melting, or treating any 5 or 1 cent coins. This has been a particular problem with nickels and dimes (and with some comparable coins in other currencies) because of their relatively low face value and unstable commodity prices. For a while the copper in US pennies was worth more than one cent, so people would hoard pennies then melt them down for their metal value. It costs more than face value to manufacture pennies or nickels, so any widespread loss of the coins in circulation could be expensive for the Treasury. This was more of a problem when coins were still made of precious metals like silver and gold, so historically strict laws against alteration make more sense. 31 CFR § 82.2 goes on to state that: "(b) The prohibition contained in § 82.1 against the treatment of 5-cent coins and one-cent coins shall not apply to the treatment of these coins for educational, amusement, novelty, jewelry, and similar purposes as long as the volumes treated and the nature of the treatment makes it clear that such treatment is not intended as a means by which to profit solely from the value of the metal content of the coins." Ancient Rome was an Italic civilization that began on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to become one of the largest empires in the ancient world[1] with an estimated 50 to 90 million inhabitants (roughly 20% of the world's population[2][3][4]) and covering 6.5 million square kilometers (2.5 million sq mi) during its height between the first and second centuries AD.[5][6][7] In its approximately 12 centuries of existence, Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy to a classical republic to an increasingly autocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation, it came to dominate Southern Europe, Western Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa, parts of Northern Europe, and parts of Eastern Europe. Rome was preponderant throughout the Mediterranean region and was one of the most powerful entities of the ancient world. It is often grouped into "Classical Antiquity" together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. The Romans are still remembered today, including names such as Julius Caesar, Cicero, and Augustus. Ancient Roman society contributed greatly to government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language, society and more in the Western world. A civilization highly developed for its time, Rome professionalized and greatly expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics[8][9][10] such as the United States and France. It achieved impressive technological and architectural feats, such as the construction of an extensive system of aqueducts and roads, as well as large monuments, palaces, and public facilities. By the end of the Republic, Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond: its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia and from the mouth of the Rhine to North Africa. The Roman Empire emerged under the leadership of Augustus Caesar. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak. Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a common ritual for a new emperor's rise.[11][12][13] States, such as Palmyra, temporarily divided the Empire in a third-century crisis. Soldier emperors reunified it, by dividing the empire between Western and Eastern halves. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the western part of the empire broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century. This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of universal history from the pre-mediaeval "Dark Ages" of Europe. The Eastern Roman Empire survived this crisis and was governed from Constantinople after the division of the Empire. It comprised Greece, the Balkans, Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt. Despite the later loss of Syria and Egypt to the Arab-Islamic Empire, the Eastern Roman Empire continued for another millennium, until its remnants were annexed by the emerging Turkish Ottoman Empire. This eastern, Christian, medieval stage of the Empire is usually called the Byzantine Empire by historians. Ancient Rome topics Outline · Timeline Epochs Foundation · Monarchy (Revolution) · Republic · Empire (Timeline, Pax Romana, Principate, Dominate, Decline, Fall) · Western Empire / Eastern Empire Constitution History · Kingdom · Republic · Empire · Late Empire · Senate · Legislative assemblies (Curiate · Century · Tribal · Plebeian) · Executive magistrates Government Curia · Forum · Cursus honorum · Collegiality · Emperor · Legatus · Dux · Officium · Praefectus · Vicarius · Vigintisexviri · Lictor · Magister militum · Imperator · Princeps senatus · Pontifex Maximus · Augustus · Caesar · Tetrarch · Optimates · Populares · Province Magistrates Ordinary Tribune · Quaestor · Aedile · Praetor · Consul · Censor · Promagistrate · Governor Extraordinary Dictator · Magister Equitum · Decemviri · Consular Tribune · Triumvir · Rex · Interrex Law Twelve Tables · Mos maiorum · Citizenship · Auctoritas · Imperium · Status · Litigation Military Borders · Establishment · Structure · Campaigns · 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Classical · Vulgar · Late · Medieval · Renaissance · New · Contemporary · Ecclesiastical Writers Apuleius · Caesar · Catullus · Cicero · Ennius · Horace · Juvenal · Livy · Lucan · Lucretius · Martial · Ovid · Petronius · Plautus · Pliny the Elder · Pliny the Younger · Propertius · Quintilian · Sallust · Seneca · Statius · Suetonius · Tacitus · Terence · Tibullus · Varro · Virgil · Vitruvius Lists Wars · Battles · Generals · Legions · Emperors · Geographers · Institutions · Laws · Consuls · Distinguished women Major cities Alexandria · Antioch · Aquileia · Bononia · Carthage · Constantinople · Leptis Magna · Londinium · Mediolanum · Pompeii · Ravenna · Rome · Smyrna Other topics Fiction set in ancient Rome (films · video games) Portal [hide] v · t · e Roman Constitution Ancient Rome History · Constitution · Senate · Assemblies (Curiate · Century · Tribal · Plebeian) · Magistrates Roman Kingdom History · Constitution · Senate · Assemblies · Magistrates Roman Republic History · Constitution (reforms of Sulla • reforms of Caesar • reforms of Augustus) · Senate · Assemblies · Magistrates Roman Empire History · (post Diocletian) · Constitution · (post Diocletian) · Senate · Assemblies · Magistrates Miscellaneous Sulla's Constitutional Reforms · Caesar's Constitutional Reforms · Conflict of the Orders · Roman law Portal Portal [hide] v · t · e Roman mythology and religion Deities Apollo · Bona Dea · Castor and Pollux · Ceres · Cupid · Diana · Dis Pater · Fauna · Faunus · Flora · Genius · Hercules · Janus · Juno · Jupiter · Lares · Liber · Mars · Mercury · Minerva · Orcus · Neptune · Penates · Pluto · Pomona · Priapus · Proserpina · Quirinus · Saturn · Silvanus · Sol · Venus · Vesta · Vulcan She-wolf suckles Romulus and Remus.jpg Abstract deities Concordia · Fides · Fortuna · Pietas · Spes · Roma · Victoria · Terra Legendary founders Aeneas · Romulus and Remus · Numa Pompilius · Servius Tullius · Ancus Marcius Texts Vergil (Aeneid) · Ovid (Metamorphoses · Fasti) · Propertius · Apuleius (The Golden Ass) Concepts and practices Religion in ancient Rome · Festivals · interpretatio graeca · Imperial cult · Temples See also Glossary of ancient Roman religion · Greek mythology · myth and ritual · classical mythology [hide] v · t · e Ancient Greek and Roman wars Wars of ancient Greece Trojan War · First Messenian War · Second Messenian War · Lelantine War · Sicilian Wars · Greco-Persian Wars · Aeginetan War · Wars of the Delian League · Samian War · Peloponnesian War · Corinthian War · Sacred Wars (First, Second, Third) · Social War (357–355 BC) · Rise of Macedon · Wars of Alexander the Great · Wars over Alexander's empire · Lamian War · Chremonidean War · Cleomenean War · Social War (220–217 BC) · Cretan War · Aetolian War · War against Nabis · Maccabean Revolt Wars of the Roman Republic Roman-Latin wars (First Latin War (Battle of Lake Regillus) · Second Latin War) · Samnite Wars · Pyrrhic War · Punic Wars (First, Second, Third) · Macedonian Wars (Illyrian · First Macedonian · Second Macedonian · Seleucid · Third Macedonian · Fourth Macedonian) · Jugurthine War · Cimbrian War · Roman Servile Wars (First · Second · Third) · Social War · Civil wars of Lucius Cornelius Sulla (First · Second) · Mithridatic Wars (First · Second · Third) · Gallic Wars · Julius Caesar's civil war · End of the Republic (Post-Caesarian · Liberators' · Sicilian · Fulvia's · Final) Wars of the Roman Empire Germanic Wars (Marcomannic · Alamannic · Gothic · Visigothic) · Wars in Britain · Wars of Boudica · Armenian War · Civil War of 69 · Jewish Wars · Domitian's Dacian War · Trajan's Dacian Wars · Parthian Wars · Roman–Persian Wars · Civil Wars of the Third Century · Wars of the Fall of the Western Roman Empire Military history [hide] v · t · e Roman emperors Principate 27 BC – 235 AD Augustus · Tiberius · Caligula · Claudius · Nero · Galba · Otho · Vitellius · Vespasian · Titus · Domitian · Nerva · Trajan · Hadrian · Antoninus Pius · Marcus Aurelius with Lucius Verus · Commodus · Pertinax · Didius Julianus · Septimius Severus · Caracalla · Geta · Macrinus with Diadumenian · Elagabalus · Alexander Severus Crisis 235–284 Maximinus Thrax · Gordian I and Gordian II · Pupienus and Balbinus · Gordian III · Philip the Arab · Decius with Herennius Etruscus · Hostilian · Trebonianus Gallus with Volusianus · Aemilianus · Valerian · Gallienus with Saloninus · Claudius Gothicus · Quintillus · Aurelian · Tacitus · Florianus · Probus · Carus · Carinus · Numerian Dominate 284–395 Diocletian · Maximian · Constantius Chlorus · Galerius · Severus · Maxentius · Maximinus Daia · Licinius with Valerius Valens and Martinianus · Constantine the Great · Constantine II · Constans I · Constantius II with Vetranio · Julian · Jovian · Valentinian I · Valens · Gratian · Valentinian II · Theodosius I Western Empire 395–480 Honorius with Constantine III · Constantius III · Joannes · Valentinian III · Petronius Maximus · Avitus · Majorian · Libius Severus · Anthemius · Olybrius · Glycerius · Julius Nepos · Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius · Theodosius II · Marcian · Leo I the Thracian · Leo II · Zeno · Basiliscus · Anastasius I · Justin I · Justinian I · Justin II · Tiberius II Constantine · Maurice · Phocas · Heraclius · Constantine III · Heraklonas · Constans II · Constantine IV · Justinian II · Leontios · Tiberios III · Philippikos · Anastasios II · Theodosios III · Leo III the Isaurian · Constantine V · Artabasdos · Leo IV the Khazar · Constantine VI · Irene · Nikephoros I · Staurakios · Michael I Rangabe · Leo V the Armenian · Michael II the Amorian · Theophilos · Michael III · Basil I the Macedonian · Leo VI the Wise · Alexander · Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos · Romanos I Lekapenos · Romanos II · Nikephoros II Phokas · John I Tzimiskes · Basil II · Constantine VIII · Zoe · Romanos III Argyros · Michael IV the Paphlagonian · Michael V Kalaphates · Constantine IX Monomachos · Theodora · Michael VI Bringas · Isaac I Komnenos · Constantine X Doukas · Romanos IV Diogenes · Michael VII Doukas · Nikephoros III Botaneiates · Alexios I Komnenos · John II Komnenos · Manuel I Komnenos · Alexios II Komnenos · Andronikos I Komnenos · Isaac II Angelos · Alexios III Angelos · Alexios IV Angelos · Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris · Theodore I Laskaris · John III Doukas Vatatzes · Theodore II Laskaris · John IV Laskaris Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos · Andronikos II Palaiologos · Michael IX Palaiologos · Andronikos III Palaiologos · John V Palaiologos · John VI Kantakouzenos · Matthew Kantakouzenos · Andronikos IV Palaiologos · John VII Palaiologos · Andronikos V Palaiologos · Manuel II Palaiologos · John VIII Palaiologos · Constantine XI Palaiologos Ancient Greece was a Greek civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period[citation needed] of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity (ca. 600 AD). Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era.[1] Included in ancient Greece is the period of Classical Greece, which flourished during the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Classical Greece began with the repelling of a Persian invasion by Athenian leadership. Because of conquests by Alexander the Great, Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the western end of the Mediterranean Sea. Classical Greek culture, especially philosophy, had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire, which carried a version of it to many parts of the Mediterranean region and Europe, for which reason Classical Greece is generally considered to be the seminal culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture.[ Ancient Greece Outline · Timeline Periods Cycladic civilization · Minoan civilization · Mycenaean civilization · Greek Dark Ages · Archaic period · Classical Greece · Hellenistic Greece · Roman Greece Geography Aegean Sea · Aeolis · Alexandria · Antioch · Crete · Cyprus · Cappadocia · Doris · Hellespont · Ephesus · Epirus · Ionian Sea · Ionia · Macedonia · Magna Graecia · Miletus · Pergamon · Peloponnesus · Pontus · Ancient Greek colonies City states Argos · Athens · Byzantium · Chalkis · Corinth · Megalopolis · Rhodes · Syracuse · Sparta · Thebes Politics Athenian democracy (Agora · Areopagus · Ecclesia · Graphē paranómōn · Heliaia · Ostracism) · Boeotarch · Boule · Koinon · Proxeny · Spartan Constitution (Apella · Ephor · Gerousia · Harmost) · Strategos · Synedrion · Tagus · Tyrant · Amphictyonic League Rulers Kings of Argos · Archons of Athens · Kings of Athens · Kings of Commagene · Diadochi · Kings of Lydia · Kings of Macedonia · Kings of Paionia · Attalid kings of Pergamon · Kings of Pontus · Kings of Sparta · Tyrants of Syracuse Life Agriculture · Calendar · Clothing · Cuisine · Economy · Education · Festivals · Homosexuality · Law · Marriage · Funeral and burial practices · Olympic Games · Pederasty · Philosophy · Prostitution · Religion · Slavery · Warfare · Wine Military Wars · Athenian military · Antigonid Macedonian army · Army of Macedon · Ballista · Cretan archers · Hellenistic armies · Hippeis · Hoplite · Hetairoi · Macedonian phalanx · Phalanx formation · Peltast · Pezhetairos · Sarissa · Sacred Band of Thebes · Sciritae · Seleucid army · Spartan army · Toxotai · Xiphos · Xyston People Philosophers Anaxagoras · Anaximander · Anaximenes · Antisthenes · Aristotle · Democritus · Diogenes of Sinope · Epicurus · Empedocles · Heraclitus · Hypatia · Leucippus · Gorgias · Parmenides · Plato · Protagoras · Pythagoras · Socrates · Thales · Zeno Authors Aeschylus · Aesop · Alcaeus · Archilochus · Aristophanes · Bacchylides · Euripides · Herodotus · Hesiod · Hipponax · Homer · Ibycus · Lucian · Menander · Mimnermus · Pindar · Plutarch · Polybius · Sappho · Simonides · Sophocles · Stesichorus · Thucydides · Theognis · Timocreon · Tyrtaeus · Xenophon Others Agesilaus II · Agis II · Alexander the Great · Alcibiades · Aratus · Archimedes · Aspasia · Demosthenes · Epaminondas · Euclid · Hipparchus · Hippocrates · Leonidas · Lycurgus · Lysander · Milo of Croton · Miltiades · Pausanias · Pericles · Philip of Macedon · Philopoemen · Ptolemy · Pyrrhus · Solon · Themistocles Groups Playwrights · Poets · Philosophers · Tyrants Cultures Ancient Greek tribes · Greeks · Thracian Greeks · Ancient Macedonians Arts Architecture · Coinage · Literature · Music · Pottery · Sculpture · Theatre Religion Funeral and burial practices · Greek mythology · Greek temple · Greek underworld · Mythological figures · Twelve Olympians Sacred places Eleusis · Delphi · Delos · Dodona · Mount Olympus · Olympia Sciences Astronomy · Mathematics · Medicine · Technology Structures Temple of Artemis · Temple of Athena Nike · Athenian Treasury · Erechtheion · Lion Gate · Long Walls · Parthenon · Philippeion · Samothrace temple complex · Temple of Aphaea · Temple of Hephaestus · Temple of Hera, Olympia · Temple of Zeus, Olympia · Theatre of Dionysus · Tunnel of Eupalinos Language Proto-Greek · Mycenaean · Homeric · Dialects (Aeolic · Arcadocypriot · Attic · Doric · Ionic · Locrian · Macedonian · Pamphylian) · Koine Writing Linear A · Linear B · Cypriot syllabary · Greek alphabet · Greek numerals · Attic numerals Lists Cities · Cities in Epirus · Greek temples · Place names · Sroae · Theatres Category Category · Portal Portal · WikiProject WikiProject [hide] v · t · e Classical antiquity by region Europa Graecia · Italia · Gallia · Dacia · Thracia · Illyria · Hispania · Britannia · Germania Asia Scythia · Anatolia · Syria · Arabia Africa Libya · Aegyptus [hide] v · t · e Ancient Greek and Roman wars Wars of ancient Greece Trojan War · First Messenian War · Second Messenian War · Lelantine War · Sicilian Wars · Greco-Persian Wars · Aeginetan War · Wars of the Delian League · Samian War · Peloponnesian War · Corinthian War · Sacred Wars (First, Second, Third) · Social War (357–355 BC) · Rise of Macedon · Wars of Alexander the Great · Wars over Alexander's empire · Lamian War · Chremonidean War · Cleomenean War · Social War (220–217 BC) · Cretan War · Aetolian War · War against Nabis · Maccabean Revolt Wars of the Roman Republic Roman-Latin wars (First Latin War (Battle of Lake Regillus) · Second Latin War) · Samnite Wars · Pyrrhic War · Punic Wars (First, Second, Third) · Macedonian Wars (Illyrian · First Macedonian · Second Macedonian · Seleucid · Third Macedonian · Fourth Macedonian) · Jugurthine War · Cimbrian War · Roman Servile Wars (First · Second · Third) · Social War · Civil wars of Lucius Cornelius Sulla (First · Second) · Mithridatic Wars (First · Second · Third) · Gallic Wars · Julius Caesar's civil war · End of the Republic (Post-Caesarian · Liberators' · Sicilian · Fulvia's · Final) Wars of the Roman Empire Germanic Wars (Marcomannic · Alamannic · Gothic · Visigothic) · Wars in Britain · Wars of Boudica · Armenian War · Civil War of 69 · Jewish Wars · Domitian's Dacian War · Trajan's Dacian Wars · Parthian Wars · Roman–Persian Wars · Civil Wars of the Third Century · Wars of the Fall of the Western Roman Empire | Star of David Article Talk Read View source View history Tools Page semi-protected This article is about the hexagram as a Jewish symbol. For other uses, see Hexagram. "Jewish Star" redirects here. For other uses, see The Jewish Star (disambiguation). "Magen David" redirects here. For the halakhic commentator, see David HaLevi Segal. The Star of David as depicted on the flag of Israel. The Star of David (Hebrew: מָגֵן דָּוִד, romanized: Magen David, lit. 'Shield of David')[a] is a generally recognized symbol of both Jewish identity and Judaism.[1] Its shape is that of a hexagram: the compound of two equilateral triangles. A derivation of the seal of Solomon, which was used for decorative and mystical purposes by Muslims and Kabbalistic Jews, its adoption as a distinctive symbol for the Jewish people and their religion dates back to 17th-century Prague.[2] In the 19th century, the symbol began to be widely used among the Jewish communities of Eastern Europe, ultimately coming to be used to represent Jewish identity or religious beliefs.[2][3] It became representative of Zionism after it was chosen as the central symbol for a Jewish national flag at the First Zionist Congress in 1897.[4] By the end of World War I, it had become an internationally accepted symbol for the Jewish people, being used on the gravestones of fallen Jewish soldiers.[5] Today, the star is used as the central symbol on the national flag of the State of Israel. Roots Unlike the menorah,[2] the Lion of Judah, the shofar and the lulav, the hexagram was not originally a uniquely Jewish symbol.[6] The hexagram, being an inherently simple geometric construction, has been used in various motifs throughout human history, which were not exclusively religious. It appeared as a decorative motif in both 4th-century synagogues and Christian churches in the Galilee region.[7][8] Gershom Scholem writes that the term "seal of Solomon" was adopted by Jews from Islamic magic literature, while he could not assert with certainty whether the term "shield of David" originated in Islamic or Jewish mysticism.[2] Leonora Leet argues though that not just the terminology, but the esoteric philosophy behind it had pre-Islamic Jewish roots and provides among other arguments the Talmud's mention of the hexagram as being engraved on Solomon's seal ring.[9] She also shows that Jewish alchemists were the teachers of their Muslim and Christian counterparts, and that a way-opener such as Maria Hebraea of Alexandria (2nd or 3rd century CE; others date her earlier) already used concepts which were later adopted by Muslim and Christian alchemists and could be graphically associated with the symbolism of the upper and lower triangles constituting the hexagram, which came into explicit use after her time.[9] The hexagram however only becomes widespread in Jewish magical texts and amulets (segulot) in the early Middle Ages, which is why most modern authors have seen Islamic mysticism as the source of the medieval Spanish Kabbalists' use of the hexagram.[9][10] The name "Star of David" originates from King David of ancient Israel. Use as Jewish emblem Only around one millennium later, however, the star would begin to be used as a symbol to identify Jewish communities, a tradition that seems to have started in Prague before the 17th century, and from there spread to much of Eastern Europe.[2][11] In the 19th century, it came to be adopted by European Jews as a symbol to represent Jewish religion or identity in the same manner the Christian cross identified that religion's believers.[2][12] The symbol became representative of the worldwide Zionist community after it was chosen as the central symbol on a flag at the First Zionist Congress in 1897, due to its usage in some Jewish communities and its lack of specifically religious connotations.[3][13] It was not considered an exclusively Jewish symbol until after it began to be used on the gravestones of fallen Jewish soldiers in World War I.[5] History of Jewish usage Early use as an ornament The Star of David in the oldest surviving complete copy of the Masoretic text, the Leningrad Codex, dated 1008. The hexagram does appear occasionally in Jewish contexts since antiquity, apparently as a decorative motif. For example, in Israel, there is a stone bearing a hexagram from the arch of the 3rd–4th century Khirbet Shura synagogue in the Galilee.[14][15] Originally, the hexagram may have been employed as an architectural ornament on synagogues, as it is, for example, on the cathedrals of Brandenburg and Stendal, and on the Marktkirche at Hanover. A hexagram in this form is found on the ancient synagogue at Capernaum.[14] The use of the hexagram in a Jewish context as a possibly meaningful symbol may occur as early as the 11th century, in the decoration of the carpet page of the famous Tanakh manuscript, the Leningrad Codex dated 1008. Similarly, the symbol illuminates a medieval Tanakh manuscript dated 1307 belonging to Rabbi Yosef bar Yehuda ben Marvas from Toledo, Spain.[14] Kabbalistic use Page of segulot in a medieval Kabbalistic grimoire (Sefer Raziel HaMalakh, 13th century) A hexagram has been noted on a Jewish tombstone in Taranto, Apulia in Southern Italy, which may date as early as the third century CE.[16][17] The Jews of Apulia were noted for their scholarship in Kabbalah, which has been connected to the use of the Star of David.[18] Medieval Kabbalistic grimoires show hexagrams among the tables of segulot, but without identifying them as "Shield of David". In the Renaissance, in the 16th-century Land of Israel, the book Ets Khayim conveys the Kabbalah of Ha-Ari (Rabbi Isaac Luria) who arranges the traditional items on the seder plate for Passover into two triangles, where they explicitly correspond to Jewish mystical concepts. The six sfirot of the masculine Zer Anpin correspond to the six items on the seder plate, while the seventh sfira being the feminine Malkhut corresponds to the plate itself.[19][20][21] However, these seder-plate triangles are parallel, one above the other, and do not actually form a hexagram.[22] According to G. S. Oegema (1996) Isaac Luria provided the hexagram with a further mystical meaning. In his book Etz Chayim he teaches that the elements of the plate for the Seder evening have to be placed in the order of the hexagram: above the three sefirot "Crown", "Wisdom", and "Insight", below the other seven.[23][page needed] Similarly, M. Costa[full citation needed] wrote that M. Gudemann and other researchers in the 1920s claimed that Isaac Luria was influential in turning the Star of David into a national Jewish emblem by teaching that the elements of the plate for the Seder evening have to be placed in the order of the hexagram. Gershom Scholem (1990) disagrees with this view, arguing that Isaac Luria talked about parallel triangles one beneath the other and not about the hexagram.[24] The Star of David at least since the 20th century remains associated with the number seven and thus with the Menorah, and popular accounts[unreliable source?] associate it with the six directions of space plus the center (under the influence of the description of space found in the Sefer Yetsira: Up, Down, East, West, South, North, and Center), or the Six Sefirot of the Male (Zeir Anpin) united with the Seventh Sefirot of the Female (Nukva).[25] Some say that one triangle represents the ruling tribe of Judah and the other the former ruling tribe of Benjamin. It is also seen as a dalet and yud, the two letters assigned to Judah. There are 12 Vav, or "men," representing the 12 tribes or patriarchs of Israel. Official usage in Central European communities Historical flag of the Jewish community in Prague In 1354, King of Bohemia Charles IV approved for the Jews of Prague a red flag with a hexagram.[26] In 1460, the Jews of Ofen (Buda, now part of Budapest, Hungary) received King Matthias Corvinus with a red flag on which were two Shields of David and two stars.[27] In the first Hebrew prayer book, printed in Prague in 1512, a large hexagram appears on the cover. In the colophon is written: "Each man beneath his flag according to the house of their fathers...and he will merit to bestow a bountiful gift on anyone who grasps the Shield of David." In 1592, Mordechai Maizel was allowed to affix "a flag of King David, similar to that located on the Main Synagogue" on his synagogue in Prague. Following the Battle of Prague (1648), the Jews of Prague were again granted a flag, in recognition of their contribution to the city's defense. That flag showed a yellow hexagram on a red background, with a "Swedish star" placed in the center of the hexagram.[26] As a symbol of Judaism and the Jewish community Herzl's proposed flag, as sketched in his diaries. Although he drew a Star of David, he did not describe it as such Max Bodenheimer's (top left) and Herzl's (top right) 1897 drafts of the Zionist flag, compared to the final version used at the 1897 First Zionist Congress (bottom) The symbol became representative of the worldwide Zionist community, and later the broader Jewish community, after it was chosen to represent the First Zionist Congress in 1897.[3][13] A year before the congress, Herzl had written in his 1896 Der Judenstaat: We have no flag, and we need one. If we desire to lead many men, we must raise a symbol above their heads. I would suggest a white flag, with seven golden stars. The white field symbolizes our pure new life; the stars are the seven golden hours of our working-day. For we shall march into the Promised Land carrying the badge of honor.[28] David Wolffsohn (1856–1914), a businessman prominent in the early Zionist movement, was aware that the nascent Zionist movement had no official flag, and that the design proposed by Theodor Herzl was gaining no significant support, wrote: At the behest of our leader Herzl, I came to Basle to make preparations for the Zionist Congress. Among many other problems that occupied me then was one that contained something of the essence of the Jewish problem. What flag would we hang in the Congress Hall? Then an idea struck me. We have a flag—and it is blue and white. The talith (prayer shawl) with which we wrap ourselves when we pray: that is our symbol. Let us take this Talith from its bag and unroll it before the eyes of Israel and the eyes of all nations. So I ordered a blue and white flag with the Shield of David painted upon it. That is how the national flag, that flew over Congress Hall, came into being. In the early 20th century, the symbol began to be used to express Jewish affiliations in sports. Hakoah Vienna was a Jewish sports club founded in Vienna, Austria, in 1909 whose teams competed with the Star of David on the chest of their uniforms, and won the 1925 Austrian League soccer championship.[29] Similarly, The Philadelphia Sphas basketball team in Philadelphia (whose name was an acronym of its founding South Philadelphia Hebrew Association) wore a large Star of David on their jerseys to proudly proclaim their Jewish identity, as they competed in the first half of the 20th century.[30][31][32][33] In boxing, Benny "the Ghetto Wizard" Leonard[34] (who said he felt as though he was fighting for all Jews) fought with a Star of David embroidered on his trunks in the 1910s.[citation needed] World heavyweight boxing champion Max Baer fought with a Star of David on his trunks as well, notably, for the first time as he knocked out Nazi Germany hero Max Schmeling in 1933;[35] Hitler never permitted Schmeling to fight a Jew again.[citation needed] The Holocaust Main article: Yellow badge The yellow badge A Star of David, often yellow, was used by the Nazis during the Holocaust to identify Jews. After the German invasion of Poland in 1939, there initially were different local decrees forcing Jews to wear distinct signs (e.g. in the General Government, a white armband with a blue Star of David; in the Warthegau, a yellow badge, in the form of a Star of David, on the left breast and on the back). If a Jew was found in public without the star, he could be severely punished. The requirement to wear the Star of David with the word Jude (German for Jew) was then extended to all Jews over the age of six in the Reich and in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (by a decree issued on September 1, 1941, and signed by Reinhard Heydrich)[36] and was gradually introduced in other Nazi-occupied areas. Others, however, wore the Star of David as a symbol of defiance against Nazi antisemitism, as in the case of United States Army private Hal Baumgarten, who wore a Star of David emblazoned on his back during the 1944 invasion of Normandy.[37] Contemporary use The flag of Israel The flag of Israel, depicting a blue Star of David on a white background, between two horizontal blue stripes was adopted on October 28, 1948, five months after the country's establishment. The origins of the flag's design date from the First Zionist Congress in 1897; the flag has subsequently been known as the "flag of Zion". Many Modern Orthodox synagogues, and many synagogues of other Jewish movements, have the Israeli flag with the Star of David prominently displayed at the front of the synagogues near the Ark containing the Torah scrolls. Magen David Adom (MDA) ("Red Star of David" or, translated literally, "Red Shield of David") is Israel's only official emergency medical, disaster, and ambulance service. It has been an official member of the International Committee of the Red Cross since June 2006. According to the Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Magen David Adom was boycotted by the International Committee of the Red Cross, which refused to grant the organization membership because "it was [...] argued that having an emblem used by only one country was contrary to the principles of universality."[38] Other commentators said the ICRC did not recognize the medical and humanitarian use of this Jewish symbol, a Red Shield, alongside the Christian cross and the Muslim crescent.[39] Use in sports Béla Guttmann, footballer for Hakoah Vienna Since 1948, the Star of David has carried the dual significance of representing both the state of Israel and Jewish identity in general. In the United States especially, it continues to be used in the latter sense by a number of athletes. In baseball, Jewish major leaguer Gabe Kapler had a Star of David tattooed on his left calf in 2000, with the words "strong-willed" and "strong-minded", major leaguer Mike "Superjew" Epstein drew a Star of David on his baseball glove, and major leaguer Ron Blomberg had a Star of David emblazoned in the knob of his bat which is on display at the Baseball Hall of Fame.[40][41][42][43][44][45] NBA basketball star Amar'e Stoudemire, who says he is spiritually and culturally Jewish,[46] had a Star of David tattoo put on his left hand in 2010.[47][48] NFL football defensive end Igor Olshansky has Star of David tattoos on each side of his neck, near his shoulders.[49][50][51] Israeli golfer Laetitia Beck displays a blue-and-white Magen David symbol on her golf apparel.[52][53] In boxing, Jewish light heavyweight world champion Mike "The Jewish Bomber" Rossman fought with a Star of David embroidered on his boxing trunks,[54] and also has a blue Star of David tattoo on the outside of his right calf.[55][56][57] Other boxers fought with Stars of David embroidered on their trunks include world lightweight champion, world light heavyweight boxing champion Battling Levinsky, Barney Ross (world champion as a lightweight, as a junior welterweight, and as a welterweight), world flyweight boxing champion Victor "Young" Peres, world bantamweight champion Alphonse Halimi, and more recently World Boxing Association super welterweight champion Yuri Foreman, light welterweight champion Cletus Seldin, and light middleweight Boyd Melson.[58][failed verification][59][60][61][62][63][64][65] Welterweight Zachary "Kid Yamaka" Wohlman has a tattoo of a Star of David across his stomach, and welterweight Dmitriy Salita even boxes under the nickname "Star of David".[66][67] Maccabi clubs still use the Star of David in their emblems.[68] Etymology The Jewish Encyclopedia cites a 12th-century Karaite document as the earliest Jewish literary source to mention a symbol called "Magen Dawid" (without specifying its shape).[69] The name 'Shield of David' was used by at least the 11th century as a title of the God of Israel, independent of the use of the symbol. The phrase occurs independently as a divine title in the Siddur, the traditional Jewish prayer book, where it poetically refers to the divine protection of ancient King David and the anticipated restoration of his dynastic house, perhaps based on Psalm 18, which is attributed to David, and in which God is compared to a shield (v. 31 and v. 36). The term occurs at the end of the "Samkhaynu/Gladden us" blessing, which is recited after the reading of the Haftara portion on Saturday and holidays.[70] The earliest known text related to Judaism which mentions a sign called the "Shield of David" is Eshkol Ha-Kofer by the Karaite Judah Hadassi, in the mid-12th century CE: Seven names of angels precede the mezuzah: Michael, Gabriel, etc. ...Tetragrammaton protect you! And likewise the sign, called the "Shield of David", is placed beside the name of each angel.[71] This book is of Karaite, and not of Rabbinic Jewish origin, and it does not describe the shape of the sign in any way. Miscellaneous In Unicode, the "Star of David" symbol is U+2721 (✡︎). The world's largest Star of David (2,400 metres (7,900 ft) diameter) is at Harold Holt Naval Communications Station, Exmouth, Australia at 21.815927°S 114.165888°E.[72] (Google Earth view) Some criminal gangs, including the Gangster Disciples and those affiliated with the Folk Nation, use the Star of David as their symbol. In the case of the Gangster Disciples this is a reference to the group's founder, David Barksdale, also known as "King David". The Flag and Badge of British Colonial Nigeria contained a Star of David-like hexagram from 1914 to 1952. The insignia of the Trinidad and Tobago Police Service has included a hexagram since the end of the 19th century.[73] Gallery Star in the Schneider Synagogue, Istanbul Star in the Schneider Synagogue, Istanbul Star in the Ari Ashkenazi Synagogue, Safed Star in the Ari Ashkenazi Synagogue, Safed The Magen David Adom emblem The Magen David Adom emblem A synagogue in Karlsruhe, Germany, with the outline of a Star of David A synagogue in Karlsruhe, Germany, with the outline of a Star of David A recruitment poster published in American Jewish magazines during WWI. Daughter of Zion (representing the Jewish people): Your Old New Land must have you! Join the Jewish regiment. A recruitment poster published in American Jewish magazines during WWI. Daughter of Zion (representing the Jewish people): Your Old New Land must have you! Join the Jewish regiment. Roundel displayed on Israeli Air Force aircraft, 1948–present Roundel displayed on Israeli Air Force aircraft, 1948–present Stained glass Star of David Stained glass Star of David USVA headstone emblem 3 USVA headstone emblem 3 USVA headstone emblem 44 USVA headstone emblem 44 Morocco horse cover embroidery Morocco horse cover embroidery See also Judaism portal Anahata Chai symbol G2 (mathematics) Merkaba Shatkona, an identical Hindu symbol Kagome crest, an identical Japanese symbol Star of Bethlehem Star of David theorem Star of Lakshmi Stars of David: Prominent Jews Talk About Being Jewish, 2005 book Unicursal hexagram Zoigl, a make of German beer which uses ✡︎ as its symbol Seal of Solomon Notes Biblical Hebrew Māḡēn Dāwīḏ [maːˈɣeːn daːˈwiːð], Tiberian [mɔˈɣen dɔˈvið], Modern Hebrew [maˈɡen daˈvid], Ashkenazi Hebrew and Yiddish Mogein Dovid [ˈmɔɡeɪn ˈdɔvid] or Mogen Dovid, Ladino: Estreya de David. References Jacob Newman; Gabriel Sivan; Avner Tomaschoff (1980). Judaism A–Z. World Zionist Organization. p. 116. Berlin, ed. (2011). p. 463. "The Flag and the Emblem" (MFA). "The Flag and the Emblem" (MFA). "The Star of David became the emblem of Zionist Jews everywhere. Non-Jews regarded it as representing not only the Zionist current in Judaism, but Jewry as a whole." Reuveni (2017). p. 43. "The Flag and the Emblem" (MFA). "Unlike the menora (candelabrum), the Lion of Judah, the shofar (ram's horn) and the lulav (palm frond), the Star of David was never a uniquely Jewish symbol." "King Solomon's Seal". www.mfa.gov.il. Retrieved December 12, 2021. Scholem 1949, p. 244:"It is not to be found at all in medieval synagogues or on medieval ceremonial objects, although it has been found in quite a number of medieval Christian churches again, not as a Christian symbol but only as a decorative motif. The appearance of the symbol in Christian churches long before its appearance in our synagogues should warn the overzealous interpreters. " Leet, Leonora (1999). "The Hexagram and Hebraic Sacred Science" in: The Secret Doctrine of the Kabbalah, pp. 212–217. Re-accessed 5 June 2022. Scholem 1949, p. 246:"In the beginning these designs had no special names or terms, and it is only in the Middle Ages that definite names began to be given to some of those most widely used. There is very little doubt that terms like these first became popular among the Arabs, who showed a tremendous interest in all the occult sciences, arranging and ordering them systematically long before the Practical Cabalists thought of doing so. It is not to be wondered at, therefore, that for a long time both the five-pointed and the six-pointed stars were called by one name, the "Seal of Solomon," and that no distinction was made between them. This name is obviously related to the Jewish legend of Solomon's dominion over the spirits, and of his ring with the Ineffable Name engraved on it. These legends expanded and proliferated in a marked fashion during the Middle Ages, among Jews and Arabs alike, but the name, "Seal of Solomon," apparently originated with the Arabs. This term they did not apply to any one design exclusively; they applied it to an entire series of seven seals to which they attributed extreme potency in putting to flight the forces of the Demon." Scholem 1949, p. 250:"From Prague this official use of the symbol spread out. In 1655 it is found on the seal of the Viennese community, and in 1690 on the seal of the community of Kremsier, in Moravia. On the wall of the old synagogue of the community of Budweis (Southern Bohemia), which was abandoned by the Jews in 1641, there are representations of Shields of David alternating with roses; apparently, this is the oldest synagogue outside of Prague on which this symbol is to be found. In his youth, R. Jonathan Eybeschuetz might have been able to see it on the seal of the community of EybeSchuetz. A number of communities in Moravia used as a seal the Shield of David alone, with the addition of the name of the community. Others had on their seals a lion holding the Shield of David, like the community of Weiskirchen at the beginning of the 18th century. In very isolated instances the figure of the Shield of David was used in southern Germany also, doubtless under the influence of the Prague community. In other countries, we do not generally find the Shield of David in use before the beginning of the 19th century, either on community seals, or on the curtains of the Ark, or on Torah mantles." "The Flag and the Emblem" (MFA). "According to Scholem, the motive for the widespread use of the Star of David was a wish to imitate Christianity. During the Emancipation, Jews needed a symbol of Judaism parallel to the cross, the universal symbol of Christianity." Scholem 1949, p. 251:"Then the Zionists came, seeking to restore the ancient glories—or more correctly, to change the face of their people. When they chose it as a symbol for Zionism at the Basle Congress of 1897, the Shield of David was possessed of two virtues that met the requirements of men in quest of a symbol: on the one hand, its wide diffusion during the previous century—its appearance on every new synagogue, on the stationery of many charitable organizations, etc.—had made it known to everybody; and on the other, it was not explicitly identified with a religious association in the consciousness of their contemporaries. This lack became its virtue. The symbol did not arouse memories of the past: it could be filled with hope for the future." "King Solomon-s Seal", with credits Archived October 16, 2013, at the Wayback Machine Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs Dan Urman & Paul V.M. Fesher (eds.). Ancient Synagogues, p. 612, BRILL, 1998 Herbert M. Adler, JQR, vol. 14:111. Cited in "Magen David", Jewish Encyclopedia, retrieved May 28, 2010. "The Star of David - Magen David". Archived from the original on October 7, 2011. Retrieved May 11, 2011. www.markfoster.net Archived July 22, 2011, at the Wayback Machine Rabbi Blumenkrantz, "The Seder", The Laws of Pesach: A Digest 2010: Chap. 9. See also, [1] Archived March 17, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, retrieved May 28, 2010. Yirmiyahu Ullman (May 5, 2008). "Magen David". Ohr Samayach. Retrieved May 28, 2010. Simon Jacobson, op-ed, "Tzav-Passover: The Seder Plate" Archived August 10, 2014, at the Wayback Machine, A Meaningful Life, retrieved May 28, 2010. Gershom Scholem shows conclusively they do not form a hexagram. See, Hatakh ha-Zahav, Hotam Shelomoh u-Magen-David (Poalim, Hebrew) 1990:156. G. S. Oegema, Realms of Judaism. The history of the Shield of David, the birth of a symbol (Peter Lang, Germany, 1996) ISBN 3-631-30192-8 Hatakh ha-Zahav, Hotam Shelomoh u-Magen-David (Poalim, 1990, Hebrew) p. 156 Rabbi Naftali Silberberg, "What is the Mystical Significance of the Star of David?" Kashani, Reuven. "The National Flag" The Israel Review of Arts and Letters, 1998/107–8, Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs (1999). Schwandtner, Scriptores Rerum Hungaricarum, ii. 148. Facsimile in M. Friedmann, Seder Eliyahu Rabbah ve-Seder Eliyahu Ztṭa, Vienna, 1901 "The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Jewish State, by Theodor Herzl". Retrieved April 18, 2016. Brenner, Michael; Gideon Reuveni, Gideon, eds. (2006). Emancipation through muscles: Jews and sports in Europe. U of Nebraska Press. pp. 111, 119, 122. ISBN 9780803205420. Retrieved February 17, 2011. Encyclopedia of American Jewish history. ABC-CLIO. 2007. ISBN 9781851096381. Retrieved February 17, 2011. Outside the box: a memoir. Rodale. 2006. ISBN 9781594862571. Retrieved February 17, 2011. Philadelphia Jewish life, 1940–2000. Temple University Press. 2006. ISBN 9781566399999. Retrieved February 17, 2011. Kirsch, George B; Harris, Othello; Nolte, Claire Elaine (2000). Encyclopedia of ethnicity and sports in the United States. ISBN 9780313299117. Retrieved February 19, 2011. Silverman (2007). p. 208. Silverman (2007). p. 218. "Polizeiverordnung über die Kennzeichnung der Juden [Police Regulation on the identification of Jews]". Verfassungen.de (in German). September 1, 1941. Archived from the original on July 22, 2011. Retrieved March 27, 2015. Der Judenstern besteht aus einem handtellergroßen, schwarz ausgezogenen Sechsstern aus gelbem Stoff mit der schwarzen Aufschrift 'Jude'. Er [sic] ist sichtbar auf der linken Brustseite des Kleidungsstücks fest aufgenäht zu tragen. [Translation: The Jews' star consists of a palm-sized, black solid six-pointed star made of yellow fabric with a black inscription [which says] 'Jew'. [It must be] visibly and firmly sewn on the left chest of the garment.] (This policy came into full force as of September 19, 1941) "Omaha the Hard Way: Conversation with Hal Baumgarten". Historynet.com. February 15, 2017. Retrieved July 8, 2019. Geneva Vote Paves the Way for MDA Red Cross Membership, Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, December 8, 2005 Magen David: Shield or Star? On Language, by Philologos, The Forward June 30, 2006 Paul Lukas (April 2, 2007). "Uni Watch: Passover edition". ESPN. p. 2. Retrieved February 17, 2011. Beggy, Carol; Shanahan, Mark (September 24, 2004). "Sox pair weigh holiday play; councilor swept up". The Boston Globe. Retrieved February 17, 2011. "Jewish Stars". Cleveland Jewish News. April 16, 2010. Retrieved February 17, 2011. Ain, Stewart (September 8, 2006). "Fast Balls Keep Flying At Mel". The Jewish Week. Archived from the original on July 17, 2011. Retrieved February 17, 2011. "It started as a great idea, then fate stepped in". Jewish Tribune. September 29, 2005. Archived from the original on September 25, 2009. Retrieved February 17, 2011. Salkin, Allen. "Where have you gone, Sandy Koufax?". Charlotte.creativeloafing.com. Archived from the original on July 8, 2011. Retrieved February 17, 2011. Isabel Kershner and Harvey Araton "Amar'e Stoudemire's Quest to Israel", The New York Times, August 3, 2010 Klopman, Michael (August 2, 2010). "Is Amare Stoudemire Jewish? Knick Shows Star Of David Tattoo, Wears Yarmulke (VIDEO)". The Huffington Post. Retrieved February 17, 2011. "Knicks star Amar'e Stoudemire keeps things kosher". New York Post. August 20, 2010. Archived from the original on November 3, 2010. Retrieved February 17, 2011. "Are you ready for some football? » Kaplan's Korner on Jews and Sports". New Jersey Jewish News. September 14, 2009. Archived from the original on July 14, 2011. Retrieved February 17, 2011. Whisler, John (August 1, 2009). "Cowboys add muscle on defense with Olshanksy". Houston Chronicle. Retrieved February 17, 2011. "Tenacious D – by Nisha Gopalan". Tablet Magazine. November 14, 2008. Archived from the original on July 4, 2011. Retrieved February 17, 2011. "Yom Kippur a No Go for Young Golfer Laetitia Beck". Algemeiner Journal. October 7, 2011. Retrieved September 17, 2013. Sagui, Miki (September 7, 2011). "Laetitia Beck, Israel's Tiger Woods". Ynetnews. Retrieved September 17, 2013. Silverman (2007). p. 103. "Dodger-Giant Rivalry Downright Nostalgic", The Spokesman-Review, September 24, 1978 "The Commander". New York. Vol. 39. 2006. p. 32. Retrieved February 17, 2011. Pat Putnam (December 18, 1978). "Mom is Jewish, Dad is Italian, and Mike Rossman—the Star". Sports Illustrated. Retrieved February 17, 2011. Silverman (2007). The 1930s. Weigl Educational Publishers Limited. 2000. ISBN 9781896990644. Retrieved February 17, 2011. Schaap, Jeremy (2007). Triumph: the untold story of Jesse Owens and Hitler's Olympics. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 85. ISBN 978-0618688227. Retrieved February 17, 2011. skater star of david. "On the Rise: 'Hebrew Hammer' Cletus Seldin Seeks to Join Ranks of Historic Jewish Boxers". Algemeiner Journal. August 3, 2012. Ellis Island to Ebbets Field: Sport and the American Jewish Experience. Oxford University Press. 1993. p. 120. ISBN 9780195359008. Retrieved February 17, 2011. star of david. Vials, Chris (2009). Realism for the masses: aesthetics, popular front pluralism, and U.S. culture, 1935–1947. ISBN 9781604733495. Retrieved February 17, 2011. Wiggins, David. Sport in America eBook. Vol. II. ISBN 9781450409124. Retrieved February 17, 2011. Katz, Yossi (2010). A Voice Called: Stories of Jewish Heroism. Gefen Publishing. p. 75. ISBN 9789652294807. Retrieved February 19, 2011. star of david boxer. "Papa Said Knock You Out: Issue 53's Zachary Wohlman Fights This Thursday". Mass Appeal. November 11, 2013. Archived from the original on March 31, 2014. Retrieved March 31, 2014. Isaac Barrio (July 19, 2006). "Dmitriy "STAR OF DAVID" Salita in Main Event". Hardcoreboxing.net. Retrieved February 17, 2011. Football: a sociology of the global game. Wiley-Blackwell. 1999. ISBN 9780745617695. Retrieved February 17, 2011. "Magen Dawid", Jewish Encyclopida, retrieved May 28, 2010. A similar term, "Shield of Abraham" appears in the first blessing of the "Amidah" prayer, which was written in early Rabbinic times (around year 1, a millennium before the first documentation of the term in reference to a sixGpoint star). That term is probably based on Genesis 15:1, where God promises to shield Abraham. Eshkol Ha-Kofer by Judah Hadassi, 12th century CE "Australian Heritage Database". Retrieved April 18, 2016. "The star of David". The Trinidad Guardian Newspaper. Retrieved April 18, 2016. Bibliography "The Flag and the Emblem". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA). Archived from the original on May 13, 2019. Retrieved April 18, 2016. Berlin, Adele, ed. (2011). "Magen David". The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 463. ISBN 9780199730049. Retrieved June 5, 2022. Reuveni, Gideon (2017). Consumer Culture and the Making of Modern Jewish Identity. Cambridge University Press. p. 43. ISBN 9781107011304. Retrieved June 5, 2022. Scholem, Gershom (1949). "The Curious History of the Six-Pointed Star. How the "Magen David" Became the Jewish Symbol" (PDF). Commentary. Vol. 8. pp. 243–251. Silverman, B.P. Robert Stephen (2007). The Big Book of Jewish Sports Heroes. New York, NY: S.P.I. Books. ISBN 9781561719075. Retrieved February 17, 2011. Further reading Handelman, Don; Shamgar-Handelman, Lea (1990). "Shaping Time: The Choice of the National Emblem of Israel". In Emiko Ohnuki-Tierney (ed.). Culture Through Time: Anthropological Approaches. Stanford University Press. pp. 193–226. ISBN 9780804717915. Scholem, Gershom (1971). "The Star of David: History of a Symbol". The Messianic idea in Judaism and other essays on Jewish spirituality. Schocken Books. pp. 257–281. ISBN 9780805203622. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Star of David. Star of David Technology in Jewelry Today 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia on Jewish symbols The Archetypal Mandala of India of the Star of David The Mystical Significance of the Star of David Magen David: From mystical talisman to Zionist symbol -Ynetnews Authority control: National Edit this at Wikidata FranceBnF dataGermanyIsraelUnited States Categories: DavidJewish symbolsStar symbolsHeraldic chargesObjects believed to protect from evilAmuletsTalismansJewish culture 1290 Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "1290" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (August 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Millennium: 2nd millennium Centuries: 12th century13th century 14th century Decades: 1270s1280s1290s1300s1310s Years: 1287128812891290129112921293 1290 by topic Leaders Political entitiesState leadersReligious leaders Birth and death categories Births – Deaths Establishments and disestablishments categories Establishments – Disestablishments Art and literature 1290 in poetry vte 1290 in various calendars Gregorian calendar 1290 MCCXC Ab urbe condita 2043 Armenian calendar 739 ԹՎ ՉԼԹ Assyrian calendar 6040 Balinese saka calendar 1211–1212 Bengali calendar 697 Berber calendar 2240 English Regnal year 18 Edw. 1 – 19 Edw. 1 Buddhist calendar 1834 Burmese calendar 652 Byzantine calendar 6798–6799 Chinese calendar 己丑年 (Earth Ox) 3986 or 3926 — to — 庚寅年 (Metal Tiger) 3987 or 3927 Coptic calendar 1006–1007 Discordian calendar 2456 Ethiopian calendar 1282–1283 Hebrew calendar 5050–5051 Hindu calendars - Vikram Samvat 1346–1347 - Shaka Samvat 1211–1212 - Kali Yuga 4390–4391 Holocene calendar 11290 Igbo calendar 290–291 Iranian calendar 668–669 Islamic calendar 688–689 Japanese calendar Shōō 3 (正応3年) Javanese calendar 1200–1201 Julian calendar 1290 MCCXC Korean calendar 3623 Minguo calendar 622 before ROC 民前622年 Nanakshahi calendar −178 Thai solar calendar 1832–1833 Tibetan calendar 阴土牛年 (female Earth-Ox) 1416 or 1035 or 263 — to — 阳金虎年 (male Iron-Tiger) 1417 or 1036 or 264 King Andrew III (r. 1290–1301) Year 1290 (MCCXC) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. Events By place Europe July 10 – King Ladislaus IV (the Cuman) is assassinated at the castle of Körösszeg (modern Romania). He is succeeded by Andrew III (the Venetian), after an election by Hungarian nobles, who is crowned by Archbishop Lodomer as new ruler of Hungary and Croatia in Székesfehérvár on July 23.[1][2] December 18 – King Magnus III (Birgersson) dies after a 15-year reign. He is succeeded by his 10-year-old son Birger (Magnusson). Although, Sweden is an elective monarchy, Birger had already been appointed heir to the throne in 1284. England July 18 – Edict of Expulsion: King Edward I (Longshanks) orders all Jews (at this time probably numbering around 2,000) to leave the country by November 1 (All Saints' Day);[3] on the Hebrew calendar this is Tisha B'Av, a day that commemorates many calamities. Quia Emptores, a statute passed by Edward I (Longshanks), puts an end to the practice of subinfeudations. The statute allows land to be sold according to royal approval, as long as the new owner answers directly to his lord or the king. September – The 7-year-old Margaret (Maid of Norway), queen-designate and heir to the crown of Scotland, dies en route to the British Isles in Orkney – leading to a succession crisis known as Competitors for the crown of Scotland. November 28 – Eleanor of Castile, wife of Edward I (Longshanks), dies while traveling in the North. She has been suffering from illness for some time, and the cold and dampness of the winter months probably aggravate her condition. December – Edward I (Longshanks) travels with the body of Eleanor of Castile from Lincoln to London. Remembering his wife, Edward erects a series of crosses at each location that the body rests over night. These are known as the twelve Eleanor crosses. Winter – The second of the Statutes of Mortmain are passed during the reign of Edward I (Longshanks), which prevents land from passing into the possession of the Church. Levant June – Genoa concludes a new commercial treaty with the Mamluks; five galleys sent by King James II (the Just) join the Venetian Crusader fleet (some 20 ships) on its way to Acre. On board of the fleet are Italian urban militias and mercenary forces under Seneschal Jean I de Grailly, who have fought for the Papal States in the so-called Italian Crusades.[4] August – Italian Crusaders massacre Muslim merchants and peasants, and some local Christians in Acre. Some claim it began at a drunken party – others that a European husband found his wife making love to a Muslim. The barons and local knights try to rescue a few Muslims and take them to the safety of the castle, while some ringleaders are arrested.[5] August 30 – Survivors and relatives of the massacre at Acre take bloodstained clothing to Sultan Qalawun (the Victorious) in Cairo, who demands that the leaders of the riot be handed over for trial. But the nobles refuse to send the ringleaders, Qalawun now got legal clearance from the religious authorities in Cairo to break the truce with Crusader states.[6] October – Qalawun (the Victorious) orders a general mobilization of the Mamluk forces. In a council, is decided that a peace delegation is sent to Cairo under Guillaume de Beaujeu, Grand Master of the Knights Templar. But Qalawun demands huge compensation for those killed in Acre, and sends a Syrian army to the coast of Palestine, near Caesarea.[7] November 10 – Qalawun (the Victorious) dies as the Egyptian Mamluk army sets out for Acre. He is succeeded by his eldest son Al-Ashraf Khalil as ruler of the Mamluk Sultanate. Kahlil orders his allies and tributaries in Syria to prepare for a campaign next spring. Governors and castle commanders are ordered to assemble siege equipment and armor.[8] Asia June 13 – Shamsuddin II, Mamluk ruler of the Delhi Sultanate, is murdered and succeeded by Jalal ud-Din Khalji (or Firuz Shah I), founder of the Khalji Dynasty. Ending Mamluk rule and instigating the Khalji Revolution.[9] September 27 – The 6.8 Ms Zhili earthquake affects the province of Zhili in China, with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent), killing 7,270–100,000 people. By topic Art and Culture June 8 – Beatrice Portinari, muse of the Italian poet Dante Alighieri, dies. In his Divine Comedy (La Divina Commedia), he transforms his memory of Beatrice into an allegory of divine love.[10] Climate and Weather Year without winter – An exceptionally rare instance of uninterrupted transition, from autumn to the following spring, in England and the mainland of Western Europe.[11] Education March 1 – The University of Coimbra is founded in Lisbon by Denis I (the Poet King). He decrees that Portuguese is the official language of Portugal, replacing classical Latin in that capacity. Literature Dnyaneshwari is written in India. This holy book is a commentary on Bhagvad Gita and is narrated by St. Dnyaneshwar. Births January 3 – Constance of Portugal, queen consort of Castile (d. 1313) January 6 – Otto Bodrugan, English landowner and politician (d. 1331) June 23 – Jakushitsu Genkō, Japanese Rinzai master and poet (d. 1367) August 4 – Leopold I (the Glorious), German nobleman (d. 1326) October 15 – Anne of Bohemia, queen consort of Bohemia (d. 1313) December 24 – Khwaju Kermani, Persian poet and mystic (d. 1349) Agnes Haakonsdatter, Norwegian noblewoman and princess (d. 1319) Andrea Pisano (or Pontedera), Italian sculptor and architect (d. 1348) Barlaam of Seminara, Italian cleric, scholar and theologian (d. 1348) Beatrice of Silesia, queen of Germany (House of Piast) (d. 1322) Buton Rinchen Drub, Tibetan Buddhist religious leader (d. 1364) Daichi Sokei, Japanese Buddhist monk, disciple and poet (d. 1366) Giovanni Visconti, Italian cardinal, archbishop and co-ruler (d. 1354) Guido Gonzaga, Italian nobleman and knight (condottiero) (d. 1369) Hugues Quiéret, French nobleman, admiral and advisor (d. 1340) Jacob van Artevelde, Flemish merchant and statesman (d. 1345) Jacopo Dondi dell'Orologio, Italian doctor and polymath (d. 1359) Johannes de Muris, French mathematician and astronomer (d. 1344) John Maltravers, English nobleman, knight and governor (d. 1364) John Parricida, German nobleman (House of Habsburg) (d. 1312) Jyotirishwar Thakur, Indian playwright, poet and writer (d. 1350) Ke Jiusi, Chinese landscape painter and calligrapher (d. 1343) Kitabatake Tomoyuki, Japanese nobleman and poet (d. 1332) Kujō Fusazane, Japanese nobleman, official and regent (d. 1327) Peter of Castile, Spanish nobleman and prince (infante) (d. 1319) Pierre Bercheure, French translator and encyclopaedist (d. 1362) Rabbenu Yerucham, French rabbi and scholar (posek) (d. 1350) Richard de Willoughby, English landowner and politician (d. 1362) Rudolf Hesso, German nobleman (House of Zähringen) (d. 1335) Sesson Yūbai, Japanese Buddhist monk, priest and poet (d. 1347) Theodore I (Palaiologos), Byzantine nobleman and writer (d. 1338) Willem van Duvenvoorde, Dutch nobleman and knight (d. 1353) Deaths January 28 – Dervorguilla of Galloway, Scottish noblewoman (b. 1210) February 3 – Henry XIII, German nobleman, co-ruler and knight (b. 1235) March 24 – John dal Bastone, Italian monk, priest and preacher (b. 1200) March 26 – John Kirkby, English bishop, vice-chancellor and statesman April 26 – Gaston VII (Froissard), French nobleman and knight (b. 1225) May 10 – Rudolf II, German nobleman (House of Habsburg) (b. 1270) June 8 – Beatrice Portinari, Italian muse of Dante Alighieri (b. 1266) June 13 – Shamsuddin II, Mamluk ruler of the Delhi Sultanate (b. 1285) June 23 – Henryk IV (the Righteous), High Duke of Poland (b. 1258) July 10 – Ladislaus IV (the Cuman), king of Hungary and Croatia (b. 1262) September 26 – Margaret (Maid of Norway), queen of Scotland (b. 1283) November 10 – Qalawun (the Victorious), Mamluk ruler of Egypt (b. 1222) November 28 – Eleanor of Castile, queen consort of England (b. 1241) December 18 Herman I, German nobleman (House of Henneberg) (b. 1224) Magnus III (or I) (Birgersson), king of Sweden (b. 1240) December 21 – Gerhard I, German nobleman, knight and regent (b. 1232) Adelaide of Auxerre, French noblewoman and ruler (suo jure) (b. 1251) Alice de Lusignan, French noblewoman (House of Lusignan) (b. 1236) Cecilia Cesarini (or Caecilia), Italian noblewoman and nun (b. 1203) Eison, Japanese Buddhist scholar-monk, disciple and priest (b. 1201) Elizabeth the Cuman, queen of Hungary (House of Arpad) (b. 1244) Fakhr al-Din Mustawfi, Persian finance minister, advisor and vizier References Engel, Pál (2001). The Realm of St Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895–1526. I.B. Tauris Publishers. p. 110. ISBN 1-86064-061-3. Bartl, Július; Čičaj, Viliam; Kohútova, Mária; Letz, Róbert; Segeš, Vladimír; Škvarna, Dušan (2002). Slovak History: Chronology & Lexicon. Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Slovenské Pedegogické Nakladatel'stvo. p. 34. ISBN 0-86516-444-4. Mundill, Robin R. (2002). England's Jewish Solution: Experiment and Expulsion, 1262-1290. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-52026-6. David Nicolle (2005). Osprey: Acre 1291 - Bloody sunset of the Crusader states, p. 49. ISBN 978-1-84176-862-5. Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, p. 343. ISBN 978-0-241-29877-0. David Nicolle (2005). Osprey: Acre 1291 - Bloody sunset of the Crusader states, p. 52. ISBN 978-1-84176-862-5. Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, p. 343. ISBN 978-0-241-29877-0. Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, p. 344. ISBN 978-0-241-29877-0. Sen, Sailendra (2013). A Textbook of Medieval Indian History, p. 80. Primus Books. ISBN 978-9-38060-734-4. Williams, Hywel (2005). Cassell's Chronology of World History, p. 151. ISBN 0-304-35730-8. Kington, J. Climate and Weather, HarperCollins Publishers, 2010. | | | | |