Japanese Olympian High Jump Yoshiro Asakuma 1936 Vintage Original Photo Olympics

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Seller: memorabilia111 ✉️ (808) 100%, Location: Ann Arbor, Michigan, US, Ships to: US & many other countries, Item: 176277808878 JAPANESE OLYMPIAN HIGH JUMP YOSHIRO ASAKUMA 1936 VINTAGE ORIGINAL PHOTO OLYMPICS. YOSHIRO ASAKUMA HIGH JUMPER JAPANESE OLYMPIAN VINTAGE ORIGINAL 1936 PHOTO MEASURING 4 3/4 X 3 1/4 INCHES Yoshiro Asakuma (朝隈 善郎, Asakuma Yoshirō, 7 January 1914 – 22 December 2008) was a Japanese athlete. He competed in the men's high jump at the 1936 Summer Olympics

Yoshiro Asakuma (朝隈 善郎, Asakuma Yoshirō, 7 January 1914 – 22 December 2008) was a Japanese athlete. He competed in the men's high jump at the 1936 Summer Olympics.[1] Yoshiro Asakuma ( January 7 , 1914 - December 22, 2008 ) was a Japanese track and field athlete and coach. Career and person  1914 (Taisho 3) January 7 , from Fuchu City , Hiroshima Prefecture [1] . After graduating from the Japan Sports Association Gymnastics School Higher Normal Course (now Nippon Sport Science University ) in 1933 (Showa 8), he entered the School of Political Science and Economics at Meiji University , graduating in 1937 (Showa 12). Entered the path of track and field when he was a student and was active as a high jumper . In 1934 (Showa 9), as a Japanese, at the Japan -US track and field competition held at Minami Koshien Stadium in Nishinomiya City , Hyogo Prefecture ( an athletics stadium built by Hanshin Electric Railway , south of Hanshin Koshien Stadium). Became the first two-meter high jumper. In 1935 (Showa 10), at a model competition in Tallinn , Estonia , he jumped 2 meters and 7 centimeters, setting a new world record at the time. In 1936 (Showa 11), he participated in the Berlin Olympics as a member of the Japanese high jumper, but due to an adjustment mistake just before, he finished in 6th place with a disappointing record of 1.94 meters [2] . After World War II , he entered the path of a leader and trained Hiroomi Yamada ( long jump ) and Mikiko Sone (high jump) . [3] He served as chairman and vice-chairman of the Japan Association of Athletics Federations strengthening committee. In his later years, he warmly watched over the activities of young athletes as honorary vice president of the Japan Association of Athletics Federations. In 1968 (Showa 43), when selecting three representatives and one substitute for the Japanese marathon team for the Mexico Olympics , there was a dispute over whether Kenji Kimihara or Yoshiaki Saitani should be the third player. He was the head of the strengthening subcommittee (selection committee) [4] . In 1983 , she was instrumental in establishing the Empress's Cup National Inter-Prefectural Women's Ekiden Race Tournament, which was started in 1983 . 2008 (Heisei 20) December 22 , died of old age at the age of 94. Secret story  A famous disciple of Yoshiro Asakuma is Hiroomi Yamada, who became the first Japanese to become an eight-meter jumper in the long jump . provided training to There were some who questioned the pre-modern training methods of his master and pupil, but Yamada later recalled that he reconciled himself to the criticism. 1970 (Showa 45) On June 7th , Hiroomi Yamada jumped 8m 01, becoming the first Japanese to reach 8 at the business team/student track and field competition held at Shiroyama Athletics Stadium in Odawara City, Kanagawa Prefecture. He became a meter jumper, but at that time, Yoshiro Asakuma thought, "Yamada won't be able to do a good jump if I go," so he didn't go to Odawara. When Asakuma was informed that Yamada had jumped 8 meters at his home in Kyoto, he said, "You did a great job. Thank you . " During his active career, he was a very handsome man and had the nickname of " Kazuo Hasegawa in the track and field world". The person himself said, "If you walk in Ginza, you will be immediately surrounded by female fans. You can catch a glimpse of his handsomeness in the documentary film of the Berlin Olympics, " Festival of the Peoples ." Main job  Honorary Vice President of Japan Association of Athletics Federations Honorary President of Kyoto Athletics Association Kansai Student Cycling Federation Honorary President Prize word  Order of the Rising Sun, Gold Rays with Rosette 4th Class Medal with Purple Ribbon Japan Association of Athletics Federations Distinguished Service Badge Kyoto Prefecture Sports Special Honor Award Actors who played Yoshiro Asakuma  Masaomi Kondo ("Persona α ~ Showa Heart I Want to Convey ~" / October 29, 2005 on NHK General TV ) Yoshiro Asakuma Full name: Yoshiro Asakuma Original name: 朝隈 善郎 Gender: Male Height: 5-10.5 (180 cm) Weight: 143 lbs (65 kg) Born: January 7, 1914 in Fuchu, Hiroshima, Japan Died: December 22, 2008 (Aged 94.350) Country: JPN Japan Sport: Athletics Biography Personal Best: HJ – 2.01 (1935). Results Glossary  · SHARE  · Embed  · CSV  · Export  · PRE  · LINK  · ? Games Age City Sport Event Team NOC Rank Medal 1936 Summer 22 Berlin Athletics Men's High Jump Japan JPN 6T Men's High Jump Event History  · Glossary  · SHARE  · Embed  · CSV  · Export  · PRE  · LINK  · ? Games Age City Sport Country Phase Unit Rank H C/F/P 1936 Summer 22 Berlin Athletics Japan Final Round 6T 1.94 1936 Summer 22 Berlin Athletics Japan Final Round 1.70 metres NP o 1936 Summer 22 Berlin Athletics Japan Final Round 1.80 metres NP o 1936 Summer 22 Berlin Athletics Japan Final Round 1.85 metres NP o 1936 Summer 22 Berlin Athletics Japan Final Round 1.90 metres NP o 1936 Summer 22 Berlin Athletics Japan Final Round 1.94 metres NP xo 1936 Summer 22 Berlin Athletics Japan Final Round 1.97 metres NP xxx 1936 Summer 22 Berlin Athletics Japan Jump-Off for 6-9 AC NM 1936 Summer 22 Berlin Athletics Japan Jump-Off for 6-9 1.97 metres NP x 1936 Summer 22 Berlin Athletics Japan Qualifying Round 1T QU 1.85 1936 Summer 22 Berlin Athletics Japan Qualifying Round Group Two 1T 1.85 1936 Summer 22 Berlin Athletics Japan Qualifying Round 1.60 metres NP o 1936 Summer 22 Berlin Athletics Japan Qualifying Round 1.70 metres NP pass 1936 Summer 22 Berlin Athletics Japan Qualifying Round 1.80 metres NP o 1936 Summer 22 Berlin Athletics Japan Qualifying Round 1.85 metres NP o Japan Athletics Championships Men's High Jump Champion 1910's 13 Masatoshi Naito 14 Masatoshi Naito 15 Aijiro Hara 16 Daisuke Miyake 17 Ichiro Sawada 18 Date Juro 19 Goro Konosawa 1920's 20 Juro Date 21 Takeshi Hirai 22 Shunzo Ishii/ Yonetaro Nakazawa /Takeshi Hirai/Juro Date 23 Yoshio Miki 25 Kenzo Naito / Susumu Hiraoka 26 Kazuo Kimura 27 Kazuo Kimura 28 Kazuo Kimura 29 Kazuo Kimura 1930's 30 Riichi Tomiya 31 Kazuo Kimura 32 Misao Ono 33 Kiyoshi Adachi 34 Yoshiro Asakuma 35 Yoshiro Asakuma 36 Isamu Kashima 37 Okamoto Three Cities 38 Original 39 Okamoto Three Cities 1940's 40 Original 42 Katsuo Morishima 46 Original 47 Hiroshi Tanaka 48 Yoshihiro Suzuki 49 Yoshihiro Suzuki 1950's 50 Yoshihiro Suzuki 51 Yoshihiro Suzuki 52 Yukio Ishikawa 53 Kazuyoshi Yamamoto 54 Takehiko Nakajima 55 Noboru Kasamatsu 56 Yukio Ishikawa 57 Noboru Kasamatsu 58 Noboru Kasamatsu 59 Kuniyoshi Sugioka 1960s 60 Kuniyoshi Sugioka 61 Kinya Miyazaki 62 Yasuhiro Ishibe 63 A. Snezwell 64 Kinya Miyazaki 65 Kuniyoshi Sugioka 66 Osamu Shimizu 67 Hidehiko Tomizawa 68 Kuniyoshi Sugioka 69 Kuniyoshi Sugioka 1970s 70 Hidehiko Tomizawa 71 Hidehiko Tomizawa 72 Kuniyoshi Sugioka 73 Hidehiko Tomizawa 74 Katsuhiro Kagei 75 Toshihide Hamano 76 Kazuki Koshikawa 77 Katsuhiro Kagei 78 Takao Sakamoto 79 Yamamoto Jutoku 1980s 80 Sawa Takeyoshi 81 Takao Sakamoto 82 Takao Sakamoto 83 Takao Sakamoto 84 Takao Sakamoto 85 Shuji Ujino 86 Shuji Ujino 87 Inoue Motofumi 88 Takao Sakamoto 89 Yoshida Takahisa 1990s 90 S. Matei 91 T. Kemp 92 Yoshida Takahisa 93 Nonaka Satoru 94 Yoshida Takahisa 95 Michiya Onoe 96 Tomohiro Nomura 97 Yoshida Takahisa 98 Shigeki Toyoshima 99 Yoshida Takahisa 2000s 00Takahisa Yoshida 01 Takahiro Kimino 02 Takehiro Uchida 03 Naoyuki Godai 04 Satoshi Kubota 05 Naoyuki Godai 06 Naoyuki Godai (2m33) * 07 Naoyuki Godai 08 Hikaru Tsuchiya 09 Naoyuki Godai 2010s 10 Takahari Hiromi 11 Naoto Tobe 12 Hiromi Takahari 13 Hiromi Takahari 14 Akira Eto 15 Naoto Tobe 16 Akira Eto 17 Akira Eto 18 Akira Eto 19 Naoto Tobe Biographical information Roles Competed in Olympic Games Sex Male Full name Yoshiro•Asakuma Used name Yoshiro•Asakuma Original name 朝隈•善郎 Born 7 January 1914 in Fuchu, Hiroshima (JPN) Died 22 December 2008 Measurements 180 cm / 65 kg Affiliations Meiji University, Tokyo (JPN) NOC Japan Biography Yoshiro Asakuma started his career as a high jumper while attending the Japan Sports Association Gymnastics Higher Normal School (later Nippon Sport Science University). In 1933, he enrolled in the Meiji University and graduated four years later. In 1934 he was the first Japanese to better the 2.00 metre barrier in the high jump, setting the record at a Japan-US meeting. One year later he improved his record to 2.01. At the 1936 Berlin Olympics Asakuma placed a disappointing sixth. At the last Far Eastern Games in 1934 he was runner-up behind 1932 Olympic silver medalist Simeon Toribio from the Philippines but in 1935 Asakuma won at the International University Games. Domestically, Asakuma won the high jump at the 1934 and 1935 Japan Athletics Championships. After World War II Asakuma became a trainer and official, serving as Chairman and Vice President of the Japan Athletics Federation, and was later Honorary Vice Chairman, particularly promoting athletics in the Kyoto Prefecture. He received the Medal of Honor with the Purple Ribbon and the Japan Athletics Federation Achievement Award. Personal Best: HJ – 2.01 (1935). Results Games Discipline (Sport) / Event NOC / Team Pos Medal As 1936 Summer Olympics Athletics JPN Yoshiro Asakuma High Jump, Men (Olympic) =6 Decathlon, Men (Olympic) DNS Yoshiro Asakuma Yoshiro Asakuma 1914-2008 track and field athlete track and field coach It has been 14 years and 257 days since he passed away. Died at the age of 94. Born on January 7, 1914 and died on December 22, 2008. 106 years have passed since my birth. Eleven years have passed since his death. The period in which I lived was from Taisho to Heisei. list The next memorial service is the 17th anniversary of the death on December 22, 2024, one year and 108 days later. 1 person is currently visiting this page. 1 hour: 0 people 1 day: 2 people 1 week: 3 people 1 month: 5 people 1 year: 55 people Details In athletics to this day, I don't think I knew what you did until I read your books. There's a reason why I looked up your name, and when I picked up the book you supervised, "High Jumps and Pod Jumps," a bolt of lightning ran down my back. I don't know anything about the jumping competition at that time (1957), which is not very popular today. I felt that it was no exaggeration to say that it was looking ahead to the future of jumping competitions, such as the use of continuous photographs. What I particularly like is that the photos even show the structure after the landing. In history, we know that sand was used instead of mat, but we didn't know how to land it. I was moved by the method and the enthusiasm that I tried to leave the photos. I would like to take this opportunity to commend his enthusiasm for track and field and his courage to see the future of jumping at that time. thank you very much.   Please accept my sincere condolences Yoshiro Asakuma ( January 7 , 1914 - December 22, 2008 ) was a Japanese track and field athlete and coach. Career/People Born January 7, 1914 in Fuchu City , Hiroshima Prefecture . After graduating from the Japan Sports Association Gymnastics School Higher Normal Course (now Nippon Sport Science University ) in 1933 (Showa 8), he entered the School of Political Science and Economics at Meiji University , graduating in 1937 (Showa 12). Entered the path of track and field when he was a student and was active as a high jumper . In 1934 (Showa 9), as a Japanese, at the Japan -US track and field competition held at Minami Koshien Stadium in Nishinomiya City , Hyogo Prefecture ( an athletics stadium built by Hanshin Electric Railway , south of Hanshin Koshien Stadium). Became the first two-meter high jumper. In 1935 (Showa 10), at a model competition in Tallinn , Estonia , he jumped 2 meters and 7 centimeters, setting a new world record at the time. In 1936 (Showa 11), he participated in the Berlin Olympics as a member of the Japanese high jumper , but due to an adjustment mistake just before, he finished in 6th place with a disappointing record of 1.94 meters . After World War II, he entered the path of coaching and trained Hiroomi Yamada ( long jump ) and Mikiko Sone (high jump) . He served as chairman and vice-chairman of the Japan Association of Athletics Federations strengthening committee. In his later years, he warmly watched over the activities of young athletes as honorary vice president of the Japan Association of Athletics Federations. In 1968 (Showa 43), when selecting three representatives and one substitute for the Japanese marathon team for the Mexico Olympics , there was a dispute over whether Kenji Kimihara or Yoshiaki Saitani would be the third player. He was the head of the strengthening subcommittee (selection committee) . In 1983, she played an active role as a leader of the Kyoto track and field world, helping to establish the Empress' Cup National Inter-Prefectural Women's Ekiden Race , and attracting the event to Kyoto . 2008 (Heisei 20) December 22 , died of old age at the age of 94 . secret story A famous disciple of Yoshiro Asakuma is Hiroomi Yamada, who became the first Japanese to become an eight-meter jumper in the long jump . provided training to There were some who questioned the pre-modern training methods of his master and pupil, but Yamada later recalled that he reconciled himself to the criticism. 1970 (Showa 45) On June 7th , Hiroomi Yamada jumped 8m 01, becoming the first Japanese to reach 8 at the business team/student track and field competition held at Shiroyama Athletics Stadium in Odawara City, Kanagawa Prefecture. He became a meter jumper, but at that time, Yoshiro Asakuma thought, "Yamada won't be able to do a good jump if I go," so he didn't go to Odawara. When Asakuma was informed that Yamada had jumped 8 meters at his home in Kyoto, he said, "You did a great job. Thank you. " During his active career, he was a very handsome man and had the nickname of " Kazuo Hasegawa in the track and field world". The person himself said, "If you walk in Ginza, you will be immediately surrounded by female fans. You can catch a glimpse of his handsomeness in the documentary film of the Berlin Olympics, " Festival of the Peoples ." Main position Honorary Vice President of Japan Association of Athletics Federations Honorary President of Kyoto Athletics Association Kansai Student Cycling Federation Honorary President prize words Order of the Rising Sun, Gold Rays with Rosette 4th Class Medal with Purple Ribbon Japan Association of Athletics Federations Distinguished Service Badge Kyoto Prefecture Sports Special Honor Award Actor who played Yoshiro Asakuma Masaomi Kondo ("Persona α ~ Showa Heart I Want to Convey ~" / October 29, 2005 on NHK General TV ) footnote " Hiroshima Athletics " .Hiroshima Athletics Association.Retrieved January 2021, 12 . 1927 - Meiji University Athletic Club 70 years ago, memories Tadao Asao, Road to Munich: Story of Saitani, Hatonomori Shobo, 1972, p.101 Kyoto Shimbun | 09 National Women's Ekiden "Persona α ~The heart of the Showa era that I want to convey~" / Broadcast on October 29, 2005 from NHK General TV The 1936 Summer Olympics (German: Olympische Sommerspiele 1936), officially known as the Games of the XI Olympiad (German: Spiele der XI. Olympiade) and commonly known as Berlin 1936, was an international multi-sport event held from 1 to 16 August 1936 in Berlin, Germany. Berlin won the bid to host the Games over Barcelona at the 29th IOC Session on 26 April 1931. The 1936 Games marked the second and most recent time the International Olympic Committee gathered to vote in a city that was bidding to host those Games. Later rule modifications forbade cities hosting the bid vote from being awarded the games. To outdo the 1932 Los Angeles Games, Reich Führer Adolf Hitler had a new 100,000-seat track and field stadium built, as well as six gymnasiums and other smaller arenas. The Games were the first to be televised, with radio broadcasts reaching 41 countries.[2] Filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl was commissioned by the German Olympic Committee to film the Games for $7 million.[2] Her film, titled Olympia, pioneered many of the techniques now common in the filming of sports. Hitler saw the 1936 Games as an opportunity to promote his government and ideals of racial supremacy and antisemitism, and the official Nazi Party paper, the Völkischer Beobachter, wrote in the strongest terms that Jews should not be allowed to participate in the Games.[3][4] German Jewish athletes were barred or prevented from taking part in the Games by a variety of methods,[5] although some women swimmers from the Jewish sports club Hakoah Vienna did participate. Jewish athletes from other countries were said to have been side-lined to avoid offending the Nazi regime.[6] Lithuania was expelled from Olympic games due to Berlin position regarding Lithuanian anti-Nazi policy, particularly because of Trial of Nazis Neumann and Sass, in Klaipėda, in 1934–1935.[7] Total ticket revenues were 7.5 million Reichsmark, generating a profit of over one million R.M. The official budget did not include outlays by the city of Berlin (which issued an itemized report detailing its costs of 16.5 million R.M.) or outlays of the German national government (which did not make its costs public, but is estimated to have spent US$30 million).[8] Jesse Owens of the United States won four gold medals in the sprint and long jump events, and became the most successful athlete to compete in Berlin, while Germany was the most successful country overall with 101 medals (38 of them gold); the United States placed a distant second with 57 medals. These were the final Olympic Games under the presidency of Henri de Baillet-Latour and the final Games for 12 years due to the disruption of the Second World War. The next Olympic Games were held in 1948 (the Winter Games in St. Moritz, Switzerland and then the Summer Games in London, England, United Kingdom). Host city selection At the 28th IOC Session, held during 1930, in Berlin, 14 cities announced their intention to bid to host the 1936 Summer Olympic Games. The bidding for these Olympic Games was the first to be contested by IOC members casting votes for their own favorite host cities.[9] The vote occurred on 26 April 1931, at the 29th IOC Session held in Barcelona, Spain that year. The vote was held 69 days after the declaration of the Second Spanish Republic and during the final years of the Weimar Republic. This was two years before Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party rose to power in Germany, in 1933. By the time of the 1931 IOC Session, only Barcelona and Berlin were left in contention for the delegate vote. Rome withdrew on the eve of the vote. How other candidates withdrew is unclear, as is the seriousness of intent behind all of the listed candidate cities. The other cities who announced an intention to hold the games, but which withdrew from the race, were Alexandria, Budapest, Buenos Aires, Cologne, Dublin, Frankfurt, Helsinki, Lausanne, Montevideo, Nuremberg, Rio de Janeiro, and Rome. Helsinki, Rome, Barcelona and Rio de Janeiro would go on to host the Olympic Games in 1952, 1960, 1992 and 2016, respectively.[10] The selection procedure marked the second and final time that the International Olympic Committee would gather to vote in a city which was bidding to host those Games. The only other time this occurred was at the inaugural IOC Session in Paris, France, on 24 April 1894. Then, Athens and Paris were chosen to host the 1896 and 1900 Games, respectively. The city of Barcelona held a multi-sport festival at the same time as the 1931 IOC Session. This included a football match between Spain and the Irish Free State, which was watched by 70,000 spectators. The political uncertainty around the declaration of the Second Spanish Republic, which had happened days before the IOC Session, was likely to have been a greater factor in the decision taken by delegates regarding the host city for 1936. Berlin prevailed. After the Nazis took control of Germany, and began instituting anti-Semitic policies, the IOC held private discussions among its delegates about changing the decision to hold the Games in Berlin. However, Hitler's regime gave assurances that Jewish athletes would be allowed to compete on a German Olympic team.[11] One year before the games, the American Olympic Association suggested to change the venue to Rome; they saw Rome as a good replacement because Rome was originally selected to hold the 1908 Summer Olympics.[12] 1936 Summer Olympics bidding result[10] City Country Round 1 Berlin Germany Germany[a] 43 Barcelona Spain Spain 16 Abstentions 8 Withdrawn bids Alexandria Egypt Egypt 0 Budapest Hungary Hungary 0 Buenos Aires Argentina Argentina 0 Cologne Germany Germany[a] 0 Dublin Republic of Ireland Ireland 0 Frankfurt Germany Germany[a] 0 Helsinki Finland Finland 0 Lausanne Switzerland Switzerland 0 Montevideo Uruguay Uruguay 0 Nuremberg Germany Germany[a] 0 Rio de Janeiro Brazil Brazil 0 Rome Kingdom of Italy Italy 0 Organization Hans von Tschammer und Osten, as Reichssportführer (i.e., head of the National Socialist League of the Reich for Physical Exercise (Deutscher Reichsbund für Leibesübungen, DRL), the Reich Sports Office, played a major role in the structure and organisation of the Olympics. He promoted the idea that the use of sports would harden the German spirit and instill unity among German youth. At the same time he also believed that sports was a "way to weed out the weak, Jewish, and other undesirables".[13] Von Tschammer trusted the details of the organisation of the games to Theodor Lewald and Carl Diem, the former president and secretary of the Deutscher Reichsausschuss für Leibesübungen, the forerunner of the Reich Sports Office. Among Diem's ideas for the Berlin Games was the introduction of the Olympic torch relay between Greece and the host nation. Runners carrying the Olympic Flame Torch relay Main article: 1936 Summer Olympics torch relay The 1936 Summer Olympics torch relay was the first of its kind,[14] following on from the reintroduction of the Olympic Flame at the 1928 Games. It pioneered the modern convention of moving the flame via a relay system from Greece to the Olympic venue. Leni Riefenstahl filmed the relay for the 1938 film Olympia. The sportive, knightly battle awakens the best human characteristics. It doesn't separate, but unites the combatants in understanding and respect. It also helps to connect the countries in the spirit of peace. That's why the Olympic Flame should never die. — Adolf Hitler, commenting on the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games.[15] Broadcasting The games were the first to have live television coverage in black-and-white. The German Post Office, using equipment from Telefunken, broadcast over 70 hours of coverage to special viewing rooms throughout Berlin and Potsdam and a few private TV sets, transmitting from the Paul Nipkow TV Station. They used three different types of TV cameras, so blackouts would occur when changing from one type to another.[16] The games were also first time photographed and filmed in color using newly invented Agfacolor.[17] Olympic village The 1936 Olympic village was located at Elstal in Wustermark (at 52°32′10.78″N 13°0′33.20″E), on the western edge of Berlin. The site, which is 30 kilometres (19 mi) from the centre of the city, consisted of one and two-floor dormitories, a large dining hall, Dining Hall of the Nations, a swimming facility, gymnasium, track, and other training facilities. Its layout was designed and construction overseen by appointed village commander Hauptmann Wolfgang Fürstner beginning in 1934.[18] Less than two months before the start of the Olympic Games, Fürstner was abruptly demoted to vice-commander, and replaced by Oberstleutnant Werner von Gilsa, commander of the Berlin Guard-Regiment. The official reason for the replacement was that Fürstner had not acted "with the necessary energy" to prevent damage to the site as 370,000 visitors passed through it between 1 May and 15 June. However, this was just a cover story to explain the sudden demotion of the half-Jewish officer.[19] The 1935 Nuremberg Laws, passed during the period Fürstner was overseeing the Olympic Village, had classified him as a Jew, and as such, the career officer was to be expelled from the Wehrmacht.[20] Two days after the conclusion of the Berlin Olympics, vice-commander Fürstner had been removed from active Wehrmacht duty,[21] and committed suicide because he realised he had no future under the Nazis.[19] After the completion of the Olympic Games, the village was repurposed for the Wehrmacht into the Olympic Döberitz Hospital (German: Olympia-Lazarett Döberitz), and Army Infantry School (German: Heeres-Infanterieschule), and was used as such through the Second World War. In 1945 it was taken over by the Soviet Union and became a military camp of the union occupation forces. Late 20th-century efforts were made to restore parts of the former village, but little progress was made.[citation needed] More recently, the vast majority of the land of the Olympic village has been managed by the DKB Foundation, with more success; efforts are being made to restore the site into a living museum. The dormitory building used by Jesse Owens, Meissen House, has been fully restored, with the gymnasium and swimming hall partially restored. Seasonally, tours are given daily to small groups and students.[22] The site remains relatively unknown even in Germany, but some tournaments are held at the site in an effort to boost knowledge of the venues.[23] Displaying Nazi symbols and swastika Displaying Nazi symbols and swastika   Spectators giving the Nazi salute during one of the medal ceremonies as the Nazi flag flies above Spectators giving the Nazi salute during one of the medal ceremonies as the Nazi flag flies above   The Olympic Fire in Berlin The Olympic Fire in Berlin   The Olympic village The Olympic village   US track team house at the Olympic village, 2015 US track team house at the Olympic village, 2015   Jesse Owens' room at the Olympic village, 2015 Jesse Owens' room at the Olympic village, 2015   LZ 129 Hindenburg flying over the village, with the Olympics logo painted on its underside hull LZ 129 Hindenburg flying over the village, with the Olympics logo painted on its underside hull Venues The official poster of the Games of the XI Olympiad Twenty-two venues were used for the 1936 Summer Olympics. Many were located in the Reich Sportsfeld complex. Sailing was held in the Bay of Kiel, which would serve as the sailing venue for the 1972 Summer Olympics held in Munich.[24] The Olympic Stadium would later be part of two FIFA World Cups and then host an IAAF World Championships in Athletics along with undergoing a renovation in the early 2000s to give new life to the stadium. Avus Motor Road (AVUS) was started in 1907, but was not completed until 1921 due to World War I.[25] The track was rebuilt for the 1936 Games.[25] AVUS continued being used after World War II though mainly in Formula 2 racing.[25] The German Grand Prix was last held at the track in 1959.[25] Dismantling of the track first took place in 1968 to make way for a traffic crossing for touring cars that raced there until 1998.[25] BSV 92 Field was first constructed in 1910 for use in football, handball, athletics, and tennis.[26] The Reich Sports Field, which consisted of the Olympic Stadium, the Dietrich Eckert Open-Air Theatre, the Olympic Swimming Stadium, Mayfield, the Hockey Stadiums, the Tennis Courts, and the Haus des Deutschen Sports, was planned for the aborted 1916 Summer Olympics, but was not completed until 1934.[27] Mayfield was the last venue completed prior to the 1936 Games in April 1936.[27] Deutschland Hall was opened in 1935.[28] Mommenstadion opened in 1930.[29] Basketball was held outdoors at the request of the International Basketball Federation (FIBA).[30][31] The tennis courts were used, which turned to mud during heavy rain at the final.[30] The K-1 1000 m canoeing final was also affected by heavy rain at Grünau that included thunder and lightning.[32] During World War II, Deutschlandhalle suffered heavy aerial bombing damage.[28] After the second world war, the hall was reconstructed and expansion has continued as of 2010.[28] The Deutschlandhalle in Berlin, where the boxing, weightlifting, and wrestling events took place, was used as a venue, but was increasingly closed for repairs, last in 2009 when it was close for repairs, It was demolished in December 2011. the Mommsenstadion was renovated in 1987 and was still in use in 2010.[29] The Olympic Stadium was used as an underground bunker in World War II as the war went against Nazi Germany's favor.[33] The British reopened the Stadium in 1946 and parts of the stadium were rebuilt by the late 1950s.[34] As a host venue for the 1974 FIFA World Cup, the stadium had its roof partially covered on the North and South Stands.[35] British occupation of the stadium ended in 1994.[36] Restoration was approved in 1998 with a contractor being found to do the work in 2000.[37] This restoration ran from 2000 to 2004.[38] The modernized Stadium reopened in 2004,[39] with a capacity of 74,228 people. The seating has been changed greatly, especially the sections that were reserved for German and international political leaders. The stadium now plays host to Hertha BSC (1963–present), and is expected to remain the home of the team for years to come. For the 2006 FIFA World Cup, the venue was where the final took place between Italy and France.[40] Three years later, the venue hosted the World Athletics Championships.[41] Venue Sports Capacity Ref. Avus Motor Road Athletics (marathon, 50 km walk), Cycling (road) Not listed [42] BSV Field Cycling (track), Handball 1,000 [43] Dietrich Eckart Open-Air Theatre Gymnastics 20,000 [44] Döberitz Equestrian (eventing), Modern pentathlon (riding) Not listed [45] Deutschlandhalle Boxing, Weightlifting, Wrestling 8,630 [46] Berlin-Grünau Regatta Course Canoeing, Rowing 19,000 [47] Haus des Deutschen Sports Fencing, Modern pentathlon (fencing) 1200 [48][49] Hertha BSC Field Football 35,239 [50] Hockeystadion Field hockey 18,000 [44] Hockeystadion#2 Field hockey 1600 [44] Kiel Bay Sailing Not listed [51] Mayfield Equestrian (dressage), Polo 75,000 [44] Mommsenstadion Football 15,005 [50] Olympic Stadium Athletics, Equestrian (jumping), Football (final), Handball (final) 100,000 [44] Olympic Swimming Stadium Diving, Modern pentathlon (swimming), Swimming, Water polo 20,000 [52] Police Stadium Handball Not listed [53] Poststadion Football 45,000 [50] Ruhleben Modern pentathlon (shooting) Not listed [54] Tennis Courts Basketball, Fencing (épée) 832 [55] Tennis Stadium Basketball Not listed [55] Wannsee Golf Course Modern pentathlon (running) Not listed [56] Wannsee Shooting Range Shooting Not listed [56] Games Opening ceremony Parade of nations The opening ceremony was held at the Berlin Olympic Stadium on 1 August 1936. A flyover by the German airship Hindenburg flying the Olympic flag behind it was featured early in the opening ceremonies.[57] After the arrival of Hitler and his entourage, the parade of nations proceeded, each nation with its own unique costume. As the birthplace of the Olympics, Greece entered the stadium first. The host nation, Germany, entered last. Some nations' athletes purposefully gave the Nazi salute as they passed Hitler. Others gave the Olympic salute (a similar one, given with the same arm), or a different gesture entirely, such as hats-over-hearts, as the United States, India,[58] and China did. All nations lowered their flags[dubious – discuss] as they passed the Führer, save the United States, the United Kingdom, Switzerland and the Commonwealth of the Philippines. (The United States doing this was explained later as an army regulation.[57]) Writer Thomas Wolfe, who was there, described the opening as an "almost religious event, the crowd screaming, swaying in unison and begging for Hitler. There was something scary about it; his cult of personality."[59] After a speech by the president of the German Olympic Committee, the games were officially declared open by Adolf Hitler who quoted (in German): "I proclaim open the Olympic Games of Berlin, celebrating the Eleventh Olympiad of the modern era."[57] Hitler opened the games from his own box, on top of others. Writer David Wallechinsky has commented on the event, saying, "This was his event, he wanted to be glorified."[59] Although the Olympic flame was first introduced in the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam, this was the first instance of the torch relay. The Nazis invented the concept of the torch run from ancient Olympia to the host city. Thus as swimmer Iris Cummings later related, "once the athletes were all in place, the torch bearer ran in through the tunnel to go around the stadium". A young man chosen for this task ran up the steps all the way up to the top of the stadium there to light a cauldron which would start this eternal flame that would burn through the duration of the games.[59][60] But in spite of all the pomp and ceremony, and the glorification of Hitler, all did not go according to plan, and there was a rather humorous aspect in the opening ceremony. U.S. distance runner Louis Zamperini, one of the athletes present, related it on camera:[59] They released 25,000 pigeons, the sky was clouded with pigeons, the pigeons circled overhead, and then they shot a cannon, and they scared the poop out of the pigeons, and we had straw hats, flat straw hats, and you could heard the pitter-patter on our straw hats, but we felt sorry for the women, for they got it in their hair, but I mean there were a mass of droppings, and I say it was so funny... Events 129 events in 25 disciplines, comprising 19 sports, were part of the Olympic program in 1936. The number of events in each discipline is noted in parentheses. Aquatics  Diving (4)  Swimming (11)  Water polo (1)  Athletics (29)  Basketball (1)  Boxing (8)  Canoeing (9)  Cycling Road (2) Track (4)  Equestrian Dressage (2) Eventing (2) Show jumping (2)  Fencing (7)  Field hockey (1)  Football (1)  Gymnastics (9)  Handball (1)  Modern pentathlon (1)  Polo (1)  Rowing (7)  Sailing (4)  Shooting (3)  Weightlifting (5)  Wrestling Freestyle (7) Greco-Roman (7) Basketball, canoeing, and handball made their debut at the Olympics. Handball did not appear again on the program until the next German summer Olympic games in Munich in 1972. Demonstration sports were Art, Baseball, Gliding, and Wushu.[61] A team from India gave demonstrations of Kabaddi, Mallakhamb and other traditional Indian sports but were not part of India's official Olympic contingent.[62] Notable achievements Nude statues of the ideal[clarification needed] female and male bodies, installed in the streets of Berlin on the occasion of the 1936 Summer Games Germany had a successful year in the equestrian events, winning individual and team gold in all three disciplines, as well as individual silver in dressage. In the cycling match sprint finals, the German Toni Merkens fouled Arie van Vliet of the Netherlands. Instead of being disqualified, he was fined 100 ℛℳ and kept his gold. German gymnasts Konrad Frey and Alfred Schwarzmann both won three gold medals. American Jesse Owens won four gold medals in the sprint and long jump events. His German competitor Luz Long offered Owens advice after he almost failed to qualify in the long jump and was posthumously awarded the Pierre de Coubertin medal for sportsmanship. Mack Robinson, brother of Jackie Robinson, won the 200-meter sprint silver medal behind Owens by 0.4 seconds. Although he did not win a medal, future American war hero Louis Zamperini, lagging behind in the 5,000-meter final, made up ground by clocking a 56-second final lap. In one of the most dramatic 800-meter races in history, American John Woodruff won gold after slowing to jogging speed in the middle of the final in order to free himself from being boxed in.[63] Glenn Edgar Morris, a farm boy from Colorado, won gold in the decathlon. British rower Jack Beresford won his fifth Olympic medal in the sport, and his third gold medal. The U.S. eight-man rowing team from the University of Washington won the gold medal, coming from behind to defeat the Germans and Italians with Hitler in attendance. 13-year-old American sensation Marjorie Gestring won the women's 3 meter diving event.[64] Obverse of John Woodruff's gold medal for winning the 800 metres Reverse of John Woodruff's gold medal, while on display at Hillman Library, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, U.S. Jack Lovelock of New Zealand won the 1500 m gold medal, coming through a strong field to win in world record time of 3:47.8. In the marathon, the ethnic Koreans Sohn Kee-chung and Nam Sung-yong won one gold and one bronze medal; as Korea was annexed by Japan at the time, they were running for Japan. India won the gold medal in the field hockey event once again (they won the gold in all Olympics from 1928 to 1956), defeating Germany 8–1 in the final. However, Indians were officially considered Indo-Aryans by the Germans so there was no controversy regarding the victory. Rie Mastenbroek of the Netherlands won three gold medals and a silver in swimming. Estonia's Kristjan Palusalu won gold medals in both Men's heavyweight Wrestling styles, marking the last time Estonia competed as an independent nation in the Olympics until 1992. After winning the middleweight class, the Egyptian weightlifter Khadr El Touni continued to compete for another 45 minutes, finally exceeding the total of the German silver medalist by 35 kg. The 20-year-old El Touni lifted a total of 387.5 kg, crushing two German world champions and breaking the then-Olympic and world records, while the German lifted 352.5 kg. Furthermore, El Touni had lifted 15 kg more than the light-heavyweight gold medalist, a feat only El Touni has accomplished. El Touni's new world records stood for 13 years. Fascinated by El Touni's performance, Adolf Hitler rushed down to greet this human miracle. Prior to the competition, Hitler was said to have been sure that Rudolf Ismayr and Adolf Wagner would embarrass all other opponents. Hitler was so impressed by El Touni's domination in the middleweight class that he ordered a street named after him in Berlin's Olympic village.[citation needed] The Egyptian held the No. 1 position on the IWF list of history's 50 greatest weightlifters for 60 years, until the 1996 Games in Atlanta where Turkey's Naim Süleymanoğlu surpassed him to top the list. Italy's football team continued their dominance under head coach Vittorio Pozzo, winning the gold medal in these Olympics between their two consecutive World Cup victories (1934 and 1938). Much like the successes of German athletes, this triumph was claimed by supporters of Benito Mussolini's regime as a vindication of the superiority of the fascist system. Austria won the silver; a controversial win after Hitler called for a rematch of the quarterfinals match to discount Peru's 4–2 win over Austria. The Peruvian national Olympic team refused to play the match again and withdrew from the games. In the quarter-finals of the football tournament, Peru beat Austria 4–2 in extra-time. Peru rallied from a two-goal deficit in the final 15 minutes of normal time. During extra-time, Peruvian fans allegedly ran onto the field and attacked an Austrian player. In the chaos, Peru scored twice and won, 4–2. However, Austria protested and the International Olympic Committee ordered a replay without any spectators. The Peruvian government refused and their entire Olympic squad left in protest as did Colombia.[65] A remarkable story from the track and field competition was the gold medal won by the US women's 4 × 100 m relay team. The German team were the heavy favourites, but dropped the baton at one hand-off. Of notable interest on the US team was Betty Robinson.[66] She was the first woman ever awarded an Olympic gold medal for track and field, winning the women's 100 m event at the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam.[66] In 1931, Robinson was involved in a plane crash, and was severely injured. Her body was discovered in the wreckage and it was wrongly thought that she was dead. She was placed in the trunk of a car and taken to an undertaker, where it was discovered that she was not dead, but in a coma. She awoke from the coma seven months later, although it was another six months before she could get out of a wheelchair, and two years before she could walk normally again.[67] Due to the length of her recovery, she had to miss participating in the 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, in her home country. Participating nations A total of 49 nations attended the Berlin Olympics, up from 37 in 1932. Five nations made their first official Olympic appearance at these Games: Afghanistan, Bermuda, Bolivia, Costa Rica and Liechtenstein. Nations participating for the first time shown in blue. Nations participating for the first time shown in blue.   Number of attending athletes from respective participating countries. Number of attending athletes from respective participating countries. Participating National Olympic Committees  Afghanistan (14)  Argentina (51)  Australia (32)  Austria (176)  Belgium (120)  Bermuda (5)  Bolivia (1)  Brazil (73)  Bulgaria (24)  Canada (96)  Chile (40)  Republic of China (54)  Colombia (5)  Costa Rica (1)  Czechoslovakia (162)  Denmark (116)  Egypt (54)  Estonia (33)  Finland (107)  France (201)  Germany (433) (host)  Great Britain (207)  Greece (40)  Hungary (209)  Iceland (12)  India (27)  Italy (182)  Japan (153)  Latvia (24)  Liechtenstein (6)  Luxembourg (44)  Malta (11)  Mexico (34)  Monaco (6)  Netherlands (128)  New Zealand (7)  Norway (72)  Peru (40)  Philippines (28)  Poland (112)  Portugal (19)  Romania (53)  South Africa (25)  Sweden (150)  Switzerland (174)  Turkey (48)  United States (359)  Uruguay (37)  Yugoslavia (93)  Haiti, also took part in the Opening Ceremony, but its only athlete (a weightlifter) did not compete.[68][69] Number of athletes by National Olympic Committee IOC Country Athletes AFG Afghanistan 14 ARG Argentina 51 AUS Australia 32 AUT Austria 176 BEL Belgium 120 BER Bermuda 5 BOL Bolivia 1 BRA Brazil 73 BUL Bulgaria 24 CAN Canada 96 CHI Chile 40 ROC Republic of China 54 COL Colombia 5 CRC Costa Rica 1 TCH Czechoslovakia 162 DEN Denmark 116 EGY Egypt 54 EST Estonia 33 FIN Finland 107 FRA France 201 GER Germany 433 GBR Great Britain 207 GRE Greece 40 HUN Hungary 209 ISL Iceland 12 IND India 27 ITA Italy 182 JPN Japan 153 LAT Latvia 24 LIE Liechtenstein 6 LUX Luxembourg 44 MLT Malta 11 MEX Mexico 34 MON Monaco 6 NED Netherlands 128 NZL New Zealand 7 NOR Norway 72 PER Peru 40 PHI Philippines 28 POL Poland 112 POR Portugal 19 ROU Romania 53 RSA South Africa 25 SWE Sweden 150 SUI Switzerland 174 TUR Turkey 48 USA United States 359 URU Uruguay 37 YUG Yugoslavia 93 Total 3,943 Medal count Main article: 1936 Summer Olympics medal table Volmari Iso-Hollo, 3000 m steeplechase gold medalist, 1936 Summer Olympics The ten nations that won the most medals at the 1936 Games.   *   Host nation (Germany) Rank Nation Gold Silver Bronze Total 1 Germany* 38 31 32 101 2 United States 24 21 12 57 3 Hungary 10 1 5 16 4 Italy 9 13 5 27 5 Finland 8 6 6 20 6 France 7 6 6 19 7 Sweden 6 5 10 21 8 Japan 6 4 10 20 9 Netherlands 6 4 7 17 10 Austria 5 7 5 17 11 Switzerland 4 9 5 18 12 Great Britain 4 7 3 14 Totals (12 entries) 127 114 106 347 Controversies Hitler saw the Games as an opportunity to promote his government and ideals of racial supremacy. The official Nazi party paper, the Völkischer Beobachter, wrote in the strongest terms that Jewish and black people should not be allowed to participate in the Games.[3][4] However, when threatened with a boycott of the Games by other nations, he relented and allowed black and Jewish people to participate, and added one token participant to the German team—a Jewish woman, Helene Mayer. In an attempt to "clean up" the host city, the German Ministry of the Interior authorized the chief of police to arrest all Romani and keep them in a "special camp", the Berlin-Marzahn concentration camp.[70] Political aspects A 1935 political cartoon by Jewish British artist John Henry Amshewitz; Nazi sportsmen trample the Olympic spirit while marching past a concentration camp holding, among others, Jews and a "non-political sportsman". The axe of "Nazi justice" chops away at the tree of sport. United States Olympic Committee president Avery Brundage became a main supporter of the Games being held in Germany, arguing that "politics has no place in sport", despite having initial doubts.[71] French Olympians gave a Roman salute at the opening ceremony: known as the salut de Joinville per the battalion, Bataillon de Joinville, the Olympic salute was part of the Olympic traditions since the 1924 games.[72] However, due to the different context this action was mistaken by the crowd for a support to fascism, the Olympic salute was discarded after 1946.[73] Although Haiti attended only the opening ceremony, an interesting vexillological fact was noticed: its flag and the flag of Liechtenstein were coincidentally identical, and this was not discovered until then. The following year, a crown was added to Liechtenstein's to distinguish one flag from the other.[74] Marty Glickman and Sam Stoller were originally slated to compete in the American 4x100 relay team but were replaced by Jesse Owens and Ralph Metcalfe prior to the start of the race. There were speculations that their Jewish heritage contributed to the decision "not to embarrass the German hosts"; however, given that African-Americans were also heavily disliked by the Nazis, Glickman and Stoller's replacement with black American athletes does not support this theory. Others said that they were in a better physical condition, and that was the main reason behind the replacement.[75] In 1937, 20th Century Fox released the film Charlie Chan at the Olympics. The plot concerned members of the Berlin police force helping the Chinese detective apprehend a group of spies (of unnamed nationality) trying to steal a new aerial guidance system. Despite pertaining to the Berlin Olympics, actual Games' footage used by the filmmakers was edited to remove any Nazi symbols.[76] After the Olympics, Jewish participation in German sports was further limited, and persecution of Jews started to become ever more lethal. The Olympic Games provided a nine-month period of relative calmness.[77] Antisemitism Main article: Nazi persecution of Jews during the 1936 Olympic Games The German Olympic committee, in accordance with Nazi directives, virtually barred Germans who were Jewish or Roma or had such an ancestry from participating in the Games (Helene Mayer, who had one Jewish parent, was the only German Jew to compete at the Berlin Games). This decision meant exclusion for many of the country's top athletes such as shotputter and discus thrower Lilli Henoch, who was a four-time world record holder and 10-time German national champion,[78] and Gretel Bergmann who was suspended from the German team just days after she set a record of 1.60 meters in the high jump.[79][80] Individual Jewish athletes from a number of countries chose to boycott the Berlin Olympics, including South African Sid Kiel,[81] and Americans Milton Green and Norman Cahners. In the United States, the American Jewish Congress and the Jewish Labor Committee supported a boycott.[82] Boycott debate Prior to and during the Games, there was considerable debate outside Germany over whether the competition should be allowed or discontinued. Berlin had been selected by the IOC as the host city in 1931 during the Weimar Republic, but after Adolf Hitler's rise to power in 1933, observers in many countries began to question the morality of going ahead with an Olympic Games hosted by the Nazi regime. A number of brief campaigns to boycott or relocate the Games emerged in the United Kingdom, France, Sweden, Czechoslovakia, the Netherlands, and the United States.[82] Exiled German political opponents of Hitler's regime also campaigned against the Berlin Olympics through pro-Communist newspapers such as the Arbeiter-Illustrierte-Zeitung. The protests were ultimately unsuccessful; forty-nine teams from around the world participated in the 1936 Games, the largest number of participating nations of any Olympics to that point.[82] France Fencer Albert Wolff qualified for the French Olympic Team but boycotted the 1936 Summer Olympics, withdrawing from France's national team on principle because he was Jewish.[83] He said: "I cannot participate in anything sponsored by Adolf Hitler, even for France."[84] Spain Main article: People's Olympiad The Spanish government led by the newly elected left-wing Popular Front boycotted the Games and organized the People's Olympiad as a parallel event in Barcelona. Some 6,000 athletes[85] from 49 "national" delegations registered.[citation needed] However, the People's Olympiad was aborted because of the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War just one day before the event was due to start.[82] Soviet Union The Soviet Union had not participated in international sporting events since the 1920 Olympics. The Soviet government was not invited to the 1920 Games, with the Russian Civil War still raging, and they did not participate in the 1924 Olympics and forward on ideological grounds. Instead, through the auspices of the Red Sport International, it had participated in a left-wing workers' alternative, the Spartakiad, since 1928. The USSR had intended to attend the People's Olympiad in Barcelona until it was cancelled; the Soviets did attend the Spartakiad-sponsored 1937 Workers' Summer Olympiad in Antwerp, Belgium.[86] The Soviet Union started competing in the Olympics in 1952, when Soviet leaders realized that they could use the event to fulfil their political and ideological agenda.[87] Turkey Halet Çambel and Suat Fetgeri Așani, the first Turkish and Muslim women[88] athletes to participate in the Olympics (fencing), refused an offer by their guide to be formally introduced to Adolf Hitler, saying they would not shake hands with him due to his approach to Jews, as stated by Ms. Çambel in a Milliyet newspaper interview in 2000.[89] United States Avery Brundage meeting mayor of Berlin Julius Lippert and IOC German Secretary Theodor Lewald in 1936 Traditionally, the United States sent one of the largest teams to the Olympics, and there was a considerable debate over whether the nation should participate in the 1936 Games.[82] Those involved in the debate on whether to boycott the Olympics included Ernest Lee Jahncke, Judge Jeremiah T. Mahoney, and future IOC President Avery Brundage. Some within the United States considered requesting a boycott of the Games, as to participate in the festivity might be considered a sign of support for the Nazi regime and its antisemitic policies. However, others such as Brundage (see below) argued that the Olympic Games should not reflect political views, but rather should be strictly a contest of the greatest athletes. Brundage, then of the United States Olympic Committee, opposed the boycott, stating that Jewish athletes were being treated fairly and that the Games should continue. Brundage asserted that politics played no role in sports, and that they should never be entwined. Brundage also believed that there was a "Jewish-Communist conspiracy" that existed to keep the United States from competing in the Olympic Games.[71] Somewhat ironically, Brundage would be later accused of being a Soviet dupe for his controversial stance on the Soviet sports system that allowed them to circumvent the amateur rules.[90][91] On the subject of Jewish discrimination, he stated, "The very foundation of the modern Olympic revival will be undermined if individual countries are allowed to restrict participation by reason of class, creed, or race."[82] During a fact-finding trip that Brundage went on to Germany in 1934 to ascertain whether German Jews were being treated fairly, Brundage found no discrimination when he interviewed Jews and his Nazi handlers translated for him, and Brundage commiserated with his hosts that he belonged to a sports club in Chicago that did not allow Jews entry, either.[92] Unlike Brundage, Mahoney supported a boycott of the Games. Mahoney, the president of the Amateur Athletic Union, led newspaper editors and anti-Nazi groups to protest against American participation in the Berlin Olympics. He contested that racial discrimination was a violation of Olympic rules and that participation in the Games was tantamount to support for the Third Reich. Most African-American newspapers supported participation in the Olympics. The Philadelphia Tribune and the Chicago Defender both agreed that black victories would undermine Nazi views of Aryan supremacy and spark renewed African-American pride. American Jewish organizations, meanwhile, largely opposed the Olympics. The American Jewish Congress and the Jewish Labor Committee staged rallies and supported the boycott of German goods to show their disdain for American participation.[71] The JLC organized the World Labor Athletic Carnival, held on 15 and 16 August at New York's Randall's Island, to protest the holding of the 1936 Olympics in Nazi Germany.[93] Eventually, Brundage won the debate, convincing the Amateur Athletic Union to close a vote in favor of sending an American team to the Berlin Olympics. Mahoney's efforts to incite a boycott of the Olympic games in the United States failed. US President Franklin Delano Roosevelt and his administration did not become involved in the debate, due to a tradition of allowing the US Olympic Committee to operate independently of government influence. However, several American diplomats including William E. Dodd, the American ambassador to Berlin, and George Messersmith, head of the US legation in Vienna, deplored the US Olympic Committee's decision to participate in the games.[82] Last surviving competitor Upon the death of Joan Langdon on 15 March 2022, Iris Cummings became the last surviving competitor of the 1936 Summer Olympics.[94] Gallery     See also Olympic Games portal 1936 Winter Olympics Olympic Games celebrated in Germany 1936 Winter Olympics – Garmisch-Partenkirchen 1936 Summer Olympics – Berlin 1972 Summer Olympics – Munich List of IOC country codes Olympic Games Decoration Race (2016 film) A sports event unlike any other The Olympic Games are unique. Athletes from the entire world take part. Their achievements are watched from both near and far by hundreds of millions of spectators. The five rings on the Olympic flag represent the international nature of the Games. What makes the Olympic Games different from other sports events? The Games are held every four years. They are the largest sporting celebration in the number of sports on the programme, the number of athletes present and the number of people from different nations gathered together at the same time in the same place. The Games are held at intervals, but are part of a broader framework which is that of the Olympic Movement. The purpose of the Olympic Movement is to promote the practice of sport all over the world and disseminate the Olympic values. It is in this spirit that the Olympic Games are held and celebrated. The Summer Games and the Winter Games The Olympic Games include the Games of the Olympiad (i.e. the Summer Games) and the Olympic Winter Games. The first edition of the modern Summer Games was held in 1896 in Athens (Greece), and the first Olympic Winter Games in 1924 in Chamonix (France). The word Olympiad designates the four-year period that separates each edition of the Summer Games. Until 1992, the Summer and Winter Games were held in the same year, but since then, the Winter Games were moved two years from the Summer Games. The Summer and Winter Games continue to be organised once every four years. In the Summer Games, athletes compete in a wide variety of competitions on the track, on the road, on grass, in the water, on the water, in the open air and indoors, in a total of 28 sports. The Winter Games feature 7 sports practised on snow and ice, both indoors and outdoors. The Modern Olympic Games Introduction 3 The London 2012 Olympic Games were broadcast all over the world, via the traditional media as well as online and mobile platforms. They reached a record audience estimated at 4.8 billion people. © The Olympic Museum The Modern Olympic Games Introduction 4 History It was Pierre de Coubertin of France who dreamt up this ambitious project, although others before him had tried in vain to revive these Games. Drawing inspiration from the ancient Olympic Games, he decided to create the modern Olympic Games. With this purpose, he founded the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1894 in Paris. The new committee set itself the objective of organising the first Olympic Games of modern times. The date of the first Games, 1896, marked the beginning of an extraordinary adventure that has now lasted for over a century! 1 1. OG Athenes 1896. Athletics. Discus Men – Robert GARRETT (USA) 1st. © 1896 / International Olympic Committee (IOC) © The Olympic Museum The characteristics of the modern Olympic Games Elements of the past The roots of the Olympic Games are to be found in Ancient Greece [see sheet “The Olympic Games in Antiquity”], and the first modern Games, in 1896, featured many references to this legacy of Greek Antiquity: › The Games were held in Athens, in Greece, the country where the ancient Games were held. › Most of the competitions were held in the ancient stadium (the Panathinaiko Stadium), which had been restored for the occasion. › Most of the sports on the programme of the ancient Games were included in the first modern Games. › The organisers invented a race inspired by an event in antiquity: the marathon. Generally speaking, the modern Games strive towards a more peaceful world. The Olympic Truce calling for a halt to all conflicts recalls the concept of the truce observed during the Ancient Games. Sacred and respected throughout Ancient Greece, the Olympic Truce announced by messengers before the Games allowed spectators, athletes and officials to travel to and from Olympia in safety through the numerous battle zones. Today, the Olympic Truce is the subject of a United Nations resolution calling for a halt to hostilities during the period of the Games and the search for means of peaceful resolution in areas of tension. The athletes who support this initiative are invited to sign a “Truce Wall” in the Olympic Village. Innovations While the modern Games draw their inspiration from the past, they are also quite different. From the outset, Coubertin proposed: › Secular Games The modern Games are secular, unlike the ancient Games which were dedicated to the gods. The Modern Olympic Games The characteristics of the modern Olympic Games 5 In antiquity, the Panathinaiko Stadium in Athens hosted the sports competitions known as the Panathenaea. The marathon This race commemorates the exploit of a soldier who, in 490 BC, ran from Marathon to tell the people of Athens of their victory in the battle against the Persians, a distance of roughly 34.5 kilometres. © The Olympic Museum The Modern Olympic Games 6 › Games around the globe In contrast with the Olympic Games of Antiquity, each edition of the modern Games takes place in principle in a different city and country. › Longer Games In ancient times, the Games were held first on one day, and finally over five days. Today the official duration is no more than 16 days. The Games are also evolving constantly: › Since 1896, athletes from all over the world The ancient Olympic Games were the preserve of free male Greek citizens, whereas the modern Games have always been open to athletes from all over the world. The 245 participants in Athens in 1896 came from 14 different countries. The 1912 Games in Stockholm (Sweden) were the first to boast the presence of national delegations from the five continents. The universality of the modern Olympic Games was assured. Today, the Summer Games welcome athletes from every country of the world, without exception. › Since 1900, women join in As in Ancient Greece, there were no female athletes at the first edition of the modern Olympic Games. In Athens in 1896, only men competed. At that time, female athletes faced many prejudices. People worried that they would lose their femininity, over-develop their muscles or become sterile. They therefore had to overcome this kind of attitude and gradually take their place at the Games. Women made their Olympic debut at the 1900 Games in Paris (France), in tennis and golf. Subsequently, over the course of the century, they gained access to more and more sports (e.g. swimming in 1912, athletics in 1928, volleyball in 1964, rowing in 1976, cycling in 1984 and football in 1996), but it was not until the 2012 Games in London, with the introduction of women’s boxing, that women could compete in all the sports on the programme. Since the 2004 Games in Athens, more than 40 per cent of the athletes at the Games have been women. › Since 1924, Games for winter sports When Coubertin revived the Olympic Games, only summer sports were included. In the 1920s, however, snow and ice sports began to enjoy soaring popularity. A number of IOC members decided to react to this, and, in 1924, it was decided 1 1. OG Paris 1900. Tennis, singles Women – Hélène PREVOS © 1900 / International Olympic Committee (IOC) The characteristics of the modern Olympic Games © The Olympic Museum to hold an International Winter Sports Week in Chamonix (France): 258 athletes from 16 countries (mainly in Europe and North America) attended. This proved a great success and, two years later, this “Week” was officially recognised as the first Olympic Winter Games. The future of an Olympic event dedicated exclusively to snow and ice sports was assured. At the 2010 Games in Vancouver (Canada), a total of 2,566 athletes came together from 82 countries as diverse as Ghana, Brazil, New Zealand and Pakistan. › Since 1984, professional athletes at the Games The modern Olympic Games were long open only to amateur athletes, in line with Pierre de Coubertin’s wishes. The IOC abolished this rule in 1984 (for the Games in Los Angeles), and since then professional athletes have also been able to take part. The rituals of the Opening and Closing Ceremonies The Olympic Games begin and end with big celebrations, important ceremonies in which various rituals express the identity of the Games. Today, these rituals are part of the protocol of the Games. They include the following elements: The Modern Olympic Games Opening of the Games › the entry of the athletes into the stadium with their delegations (in alphabetical order, except for Greece which goes first, and the host country which brings up the rear) › the declaration of the opening of the Games by the Head of State of the host country › the address by the Games Organising Committee President › the speech by the IOC President › the entry of the Olympic flag into the stadium › the Olympic anthem › the symbolic release of doves (a symbol of peace) › the oath sworn by an athlete and an official from the host country (respect for the rules) › the entrance of the flame and lighting of the cauldron Closing of the Games › handing over of the Olympic flag to the next Olympic host city (continuity of the Games) › gathering of the athletes in the stadium (brotherhood) › the extinguishing of the flame › the declaration of the closing of the Games by the IOC President 7 Most of this protocol had been established by the time of the 1920 Games in Antwerp (Belgium). It has been added to over the years as the Games have evolved. 1. OG London 2012. Opening Ceremony. © 2012 / International Olympic Committee (IOC) / FURLONG, Christopher 1 The characteristics of the modern Olympic Games © The Olympic Museum The Modern Olympic Games 8 The protocol forms part of a much broader scenography and programme. The opening and closing ceremonies are an invitation to discover the culture of the country hosting the Games, through music, song, dance, etc. Sport, art and culture In Ancient Greece, art and sport were seen as perfect partners. The ideal was to achieve harmony by exercising both the body and the mind. Pierre de Coubertin adopted this ideal for the modern Olympic Games and proposed including art and culture in the programme of the Games. On his initiative, architecture, sculpture, painting, literature and music competitions were part of the Olympic Games from 1912 to 1948. Nowadays, the competitions have been replaced with cultural programmes that are completely separate from the sports competitions. Plays, concerts, ballets and exhibitions are held in the city, region and even the country hosting the Games. Numerous artists, designers, architects, choreographers and musicians play an active part in the success of the Games, be it through the construction of stadiums and other competition venues, the Look of the Games (logos, pictograms and mascots) or the opening and closing ceremonies. Whether through sport, art or culture, everyone can take part in the great celebration of the Olympic Games, which offer an opportunity to open up to and better understand other people. The characteristics of the modern Olympic Games © The Olympic Museum Olympic sports 9 Olympic sports The Olympic programme includes all the sports in the Olympic Games. The IOC sets the programme and decides which sports will be included. The IOC also has the right to add or remove any sport, discipline or event. Sport − For a sport to be made an Olympic sport it has to be governed by an International Federation recognised by the IOC Exemples: Swimming at the Games is governed by the International Swimming Federation (FINA); Skating by the International Skating Union (ISU). Discipline − An Olympic sport comprises one or several disciplines. Exemples: Water polo and diving are disciplines of swimming. Speed skating and figure skating are disciplines of skating. Event − A discipline includes one or more events or competitions. An event gives rise to a result for which medals and diplomas are awarded. Exemples: The 10m platform for women is a diving event. The men’s 500m is a speed skating event. Criteria for being an Olympic sport In order to be included in the Olympic programme, a sport must be governed by an International Federation which complies with the Olympic Charter and applies the World Anti-Doping Code. If it is widely practised around the world and satisfies a number of criteria established by the IOC Session, a recognised sport may be added to the Olympic programme. Since 2000, there has been little change to the number of sports on the programme of the Summer and Winter Games, but rather changes to events in order to limit the size of the Games. Summer Games sports In Athens in 1896, nine sports were on the programme: athletics, cycling, fencing, The Modern Olympic Games 1 1. OG Beijing 2008. Athletics, pole vault – final. Elena ISINBAEVA (RUS) 1st. © 2008 / International Olympic Committee (IOC) / KISHIMOTO, Tsutomu © The Olympic Museum 10 gymnastics, weightlifting, wrestling, swimming, tennis and shooting. The Olympic programme has come a long way since then: some sports have been discontinued (e.g. polo and baseball); others were dropped and then reintroduced (e.g. archery and tennis), while several new sports have been added (e.g. triathlon and taekwondo). At the 2004 Games in Athens, the programme included the nine original sports plus a further 19: rowing, badminton, baseball, basketball, boxing, canoe/kayak, equestrian sports, football, handball, hockey, judo, modern pentathlon, softball, taekwondo, table tennis, archery, triathlon, sailing and volleyball. This represented a total of 301 events! The two major sports on the programme of the Summer Games are athletics and swimming. These are the most widely followed Olympic sports in the world. They also have the largest number of events and greatest number of participants from different countries. Athletics consists of a wide range of events: jumping, throwing, and sprint, middle-distance and long-distance races. Some of these were performed at the ancient Olympic Games: foot races (varying distances), the javelin throw, the discus throw and the long jump. The first swimming competitions at the Olympic Games took place in the sea or  in a river. Today competitions take place in a 50m swimming pool, usually indoors. The current programme includes the following disciplines: swimming (freestyle, breaststroke, backstroke and butterfly), water polo, diving and synchronised swimming. Winter Games sports Winter sports made their Olympic debut at … the Summer Games in London in 1908! Figure skating competitions were organised for men, women and pairs. The experience was repeated at the Antwerp Games in 1920, along with an ice hockey tournament. It was in Chamonix in 1924 that winter sports finally got their own Olympic Games. Six sports were on the programme: bobsleigh, curling, ice hockey, figure and speed skating, skiing (cross-country and ski jumping) and the military patrol race. Some sports were missing from the official programme for several editions of the Games before being reintroduced. One example is skeleton, which featured at the 1928 and 1948 Games in St Moritz, before returning to the programme for the 2002 Games in Salt Lake City. The number of sports at the Winter Games has remained relatively stable over the years. At the Vancouver Games in 2010, there were seven sports – biathlon, bobsleigh, curling, ice hockey, luge, skating and skiing. However, the number The Modern Olympic Games Olympic sports 1. OG London 2012, Swimming – Michael PHELPS (USA), © 2012 / International Olympic Committee (IOC) / FURLONG, Christopher 2. OG Vancouver 2010, Men ice-hockey – Game for the bronze medal, Finland (FIN) 3rd – Slovakia (SLO) © 2010 / International Olympic Committee (IOC) / EVANS, Jason 1 2 © The Olympic Museum 11 of events has increased considerably: in 2010, there were 86 on the programme! Of the 15 disciplines in the 2014 Olympic Winter Games in Sochi, only Nordic combined is not yet open to women. The three main sports on the Winter Games programme are skating, skiing and ice hockey. Skating has the longest Olympic history, having figured for the first time on the programme of the London Games in 1908. Women made their debut in figure skating at the Olympic Winter Games, but speed skating was not open to them until 1960. Held in the open air until 1956, the skating events now take place indoors. Skiing is the sport with the largest number of disciplines. Cross-country skiing is the oldest discipline and snowboarding is the newest one (1998 Games in Nagano, Japan). Alpine skiing appeared relatively late: it was on the programme of the 1936 Games, but it was not until the 1948 Games in St Moritz (Switzerland) that a more complete programme for men and women was organised. In 1952, giant slalom was added to the programme. Introduced in 1988, the super-G is the newest Olympic Alpine skiing event. Ice hockey, like skating and skiing, is one of the sports that helped launching the Olympic Winter Games. Hockey is very popular and attracts large audiences. It is a spectacular sport in which the puck travels at speeds up to 180km/h. Demonstration sports Thanks to their popularity, the Games have provided a showcase for a number of sports. These were known as demonstration sports, which featured as an addition to the Olympic programme until 1992, when this concept was abandoned. › At the 1956 Games in Melbourne, there was Australian football, one of the national sports; › At the 1988 Games in Seoul, it was bowling, a sport unknown in the host country, Korea. › At the 1992 Games in Barcelona, it was Basque pelota, roller hockey and taekwondo. There have been many different sports at the Winter Games. Some have been featured as demonstration sports (e.g. skijoring, bandy, winter pentathlon and freestyle skiing). For more information about the Olympic sports, go to the IOC website The Modern Olympic Games Olympic sports 1 1. OG Chamonix 1924, Figure skating. © 1924/ International Olympic Committee (IOC) © The Olympic Museum 12 1 1. OG Beijing 2008. Athletics, 100m Men – semi final, start. © 2008 / International Olympic Committee (IOC) / KISHIMOTO, Tsutomu © The Olympic Museum 13 The Modern Olympic Games Athletes at the Olympic Games Athletes atthe Olympic Games The challenge of the Games The prospect of being selected for the Olympic Games is the dream of the majority of athletes. Enormous reserves of willpower and many years of dedicated training are required to achieve such a goal. The athletes that qualify for the Games can consider themselves as being among the world’s best. They will become Olympians, whether or not they win a medal. Taking part in the Games is what matters to the majority of the competitors: having the honour of representing their country and marching behind their flag at the Opening Ceremony, mixing with elite athletes, and having the opportunity to give their best. That is what the spirit of the Olympic Games is all about! Pierre de Coubertin knew this already at the start of the 20th century: “ […] In these Olympiads, the important thing is not winning but taking part. […] What counts in life is not the victory but the struggle; the essential thing is not to conquer but to fight well.” 2 Almost a century later, at the Olympic Games in Sydney, the spirit was the same. Canadian athlete Perdita Felicien explains why taking part in the Games was so important to her: “Even though I was eliminated in the preliminary round of the 100m hurdles, I would do it all over again in a heartbeat. Even though the months of religious training and the exhausting 30 hours of flight to Sydney only meant exactly 13.21 seconds of running on the hottest track in the world that day, it was beyond worth it.” 3 In order to participate in the Olympic Games, athletes have to abide by the Olympic Charter and the rules of the International Federation (IF) responsible for their sport. The IFs organise qualification events, while the National Olympic Committee (NOC) of the athlete’s country is responsible for entering athletes to the Games. Athletes with more than one nationality may compete for the country of their choice. However, if they have already represented one country either at the Games or another major sports event, they may not compete for a different country before three years have elapsed. There is no age limit for competing in the Olympic Games, except for the one What is the Olympic Charter? It is an official document containing all the rules to be followed and explaining the role and mission of each Olympic Movement stakeholder. 1. OG London 2012, Opening Ceremony, Athletes Parade of the Costa Rica delegation. © 2012 / International Olympic Committee (IOC) / EVANS, Jason 2. Olympic Review, July 1908, p. 110. (Extract from a speech given at the Olympic Games in London in 1908). 3. Comments made on her athletics team’s website, 27 November 2000. 1 © The Olympic Museum 14 The Modern Olympic Games Athletes at the Olympic Games imposed by individual IFs for health reasons. In some sports, such as equestrian, fencing and sailing, athletes can enjoy very long Olympic careers, sometimes as long as 40 years! By entering the Olympic Games, athletes are making a commitment to respect the Olympic values and agree to undergo doping tests. Throughout the Games, tests are carried out under the authority of the IOC and its Medical Commission. Tests may be conducted before or during the Games. For individual sports, tests are performed on each athlete who places among the top five in each event, plus two other athletes (in the heats or the final) chosen at random. For team sports, or other sports in which teams are rewarded, testing is performed throughout the period of the Olympic Games. Life in the Olympic Village Upon their arrival in the host city, athletes stay in the Olympic Village. While at the Games, their time is not devoted exclusively to competing: it is also an opportunity for them to meet other athletes from different countries and cultures. Communal life is good for encouraging contact between athletes from different sports or representatives from remote countries. All inhabitants of the Village agree: it is not about the comfort of the surroundings or the quality of services, what counts is the relationships created between athletes of the entire world. Anita L. De Frantz, Olympian and IOC member, said of her experience in the Village: “For two to four weeks, the Village becomes the home for the elite athletes of the world. It was there that I realised that excellence comes in every shape, size, race and sex. It was there that I realised that an Olympian is one who can respect every individual based on the effort that it takes to become an Olympian. It was there that I learned that each sport takes special skills and determination for a person to ascend to the top.” 2 Today’s Olympic Village is almost a city! It is usually located close to the competition venues and its construction is taken very seriously during preparations for the Games. In London in 2012, for example, the Village accommodated over 17,000 athletes and officials! Inhabitants of the village benefit from many advantages. They can eat in the Village restaurant 24 hours a day, have their hair cut, go clubbing or attend evening concerts. When the Games have finished, the Olympic Village becomes a new residential area for the city, and the housing is sold or rented to the local population. Athletes have not always benefitted from this type of accommodation. 1. OG London 2012, Athletes while jogging in the Olympic Village. © 2012 / International Olympic Committee (IOC) / EVANS, Jason 2. Olympic Message, no. 33, July 1992. 1 © The Olympic Museum 15 The Modern Olympic Games Athletes at the Olympic Games Before the Los Angeles Games in 1932 they stayed in a variety of places: Shipshape accommodation There was no Olympic Village for the athletes at the first few Olympic Games. Some of them stayed in hotels or hostels. Others chose cheaper accommodation in schools or barracks. And some slept in the boats they had taken to the Olympic city. This was the case at the Amsterdam Games in 1928, when the Americans, Italians and Finns stayed in the harbour! All in the same village The first true Olympic Village was built for the 1932 Games in Los Angeles. Athletes (men only) from 37 countries ate, slept and trained together. For the first time certain community services were provided: a hospital, a fire station and a post office. In the early days women stayed in hotels, not the Olympic Village. It was not until the 1956 Games in Melbourne that the Olympic Village was open to both sexes. © The Olympic Museum 16 The Modern Olympic Games VICTORY Victory The moment of victory is symbolised by the athlete stepping onto the podium to receive his or her medal. Yet this ceremony has not always existed! The various elements of the ceremony entered Olympic history at different times. THE MEDAL’S ICONOGRAPHY The Summer Games medals In the beginning, Olympic medals varied from one Olympiad to the next. At the first modern Games in Athens in 1896, winners were rewarded with an olive wreath and a silver medal, while the runners-up received a bronze medal and a laurel wreath. Gold, silver and bronze medals were not awarded until 1904. From the Amsterdam Games in 1928, when the medals were standardised, until the 2000 Games in Sydney, the medals remained almost unchanged. The obverse showed a seated, wingless figure of Victory holding a wreath in one hand and a palm frond in the other. In the background appeared an arena similar to the Coliseum in Rome. The reverse had to show a victorious athlete being borne upon the shoulders of the crowd. Since 1972, only the obverse of the medal remained the same. The reverse was modified for each Olympiad. Then, in 2004, the iconography changed dramatically. A representation of Nike from the Olympia Museum now features on the obverse of the summer Games medals. She appears to be descending from the sky to land in the Panathinaiko Stadium, recalling the place where the first modern Games were held in Athens in 1896. In the background the Acropolis can be seen. The Winter Games medals The Winter Games medals are not subject to the same constraints. There are no rules stipulating a particular shape or design. Even the materials may vary: the medals of the Albertville Games (France) included a crystal disc; the Lillehammer (Norway) medals had a granite element, and the medals of the Nagano Games (Japan) were partially worked in lacquer. In fact, every Olympic Winter Games has seen an original medal designed. Medal ceremonies Since the Olympic Winter Games in Lake Placid (USA) in 1932, the medals have been awarded on a podium. The winner takes the centre spot, on the highest step. He or she receives a gold medal and the title of Olympic champion. The second placed athlete is to the winner’s right and receives a silver medal. The 1. Athenes 2004, winner’s medal (gold) © IOC 1 © The Olympic Museum 17 third placed athlete is to the winner’s left and receives a bronze medal. The national flags of the three winners are hoisted and the national anthem of the Olympic champion is played. The first eight in each event receive a diploma and their names are read out. Only the first three receive a medal in addition. Celebrity of the champions After the Olympic Games, the champions often become superstars and role models for many people. The Olympic Charter stipulates that the names of the athletes who win a gold medal must be engraved on the walls of the main stadium in the city hosting the Games. However, a medal is not always a guarantee of celebrity. If it is won in a little known sport with low media coverage, a medal alone will not suffice to attract the interest of the sponsors or the general public. But whether or not they are winners, everyone who takes part in the Games takes home with them the memory of an exceptional human experience. The Modern Olympic Games VICTORY 1 1. OG Vancouver 2010, Medal ceremony for crosscountry ski, 50km Men mass start free. © 2010 / International Olympic Committee (IOC) © The Olympic Museum 18 The Modern Olympic Games The Games and their era The Games and their era The Olympic Games are much more than just a series of sports competitions. Technological progress in the last century helped turn them into an international event eagerly awaited and followed by people all over the world. Everything that happens during the Games is reported and analysed by thousands of journalists and experts. So it is quite understandable that, at certain points in recent history, governments have exploited the Games for political or diplomatic ends (sometimes, sadly, to the detriment of sport). Developments in technology In little over a century, the Olympic Games have become a global event. Two major technological revolutions have contributed to this: in transport and the media. Improved transport – easier access to the Games Depending on the city and country hosting the Games, athletes are obliged to travel greater or lesser distances. For the 1904 Games in St Louis and the 1932 Games in Los Angeles, in the USA, the number of participants was much lower because many athletes were unable to make and afford such a long journey. The majority of host cities prior to World War II were European, and the athletes who took part in the Games were mostly Westerners. In 1956, the Games took place in Oceania (Australia). For the first time, most of the 3,178 competitors travelled by plane to Melbourne. This novel development, which was possible thanks to the growth of air transport, quickly became essential to the organisation of the Olympic Games. In 1964 it was the turn of the Asian continent to host the Games, which were held in the city of Tokyo in Japan; then, in 1968, it was Latin America, with the Games in Mexico City. The Olympic Games have now been held on every continent except Africa. Development of the media - Games accessible to everyone Television made an enormous contribution to the growing popularity of the Olympic Games. The first tests were carried out in 1936 and 1948. And the first live television broadcast of the competitions was in 1956, at the Winter Games in Cortina d’Ampezzo (Italy). Beginning with the 1960 Games in Rome (Italy), the majority of the European continent benefited from live broadcasts of the competitions. For the United States, Canada and Japan, a tape was flown out every day, which meant that the competitions could be screened with just a few hours’ delay. With a couple of weeks’ delay, the images were transferred onto A long journey − For the 1932 Games in Los Angeles, European athletes first had to travel to New York by boat. They then crossed the American continent by train to Los Angeles (a total travel time of three weeks!). They returned the same way. Some competitors had to save up their holiday entitlement for three years in order to have the 10 weeks’ leave they needed for the Olympic adventure! © The Olympic Museum 19 The Modern Olympic Games The Games and their era film and sent to Asia, Africa, Oceania and South America. The Olympic audience ended up being far larger than just the spectators present in the stadium. Since the 1964 Games in Tokyo (Japan), satellites have transmitted images with just a few seconds’ delay. Today, viewers all over the world can follow the champions’ achievements live. In 1968, the Olympic Winter Games in Grenoble (France) were the first to be broadcast live on colour television. Thanks to further technological developments, picture quality has improved enormously and has reached a high level of perfection. Slow motion shots mean that an athlete’s movements can be seen in great detail and underwater cameras even take the audience into the swimming pool with the competitors. Television networks buy broadcasting rights for the Games, thus providing approximately half of the Olympic Movement’s income. The IOC nonenetheless enables less well-off broadcasters to show coverage of the Olympic Games. This means that sports lovers all over the world can follow the performances of the champions. This has helped the Olympic Games to become one of the most watched sporting events in the world! Political and diplomatic exploitation of the Games Being at the forefront of the international stage, the Olympic Games have the potential to be used as a propaganda tool and an instrument of political interests. Here are some of the better-known examples › 1936 in Berlin (Germany): the Nazi regime appropriated the Games. In the years leading up to 1936, several governments and sports organisations expressed their concerns about the regime and its policies. The threat of a boycott hung over the Games. In the end, it was more individual convictions that prevented certain athletes from attending. › 1956 in Melbourne (Australia): the Suez crisis and Soviet oppression in Hungary provoked a strong reaction from some countries, which refused to send their athletes to the Games. › 1968 in Mexico City (Mexico): American athletes Tommy Smith and John Carlos demonstrated against the racism in the USA. As they stood on the podium to receive their medals for the 200m, they raised black-gloved fists and bowed their heads when the American flag was raised. This gesture was their way of showing their support for the “Black Power” movement which was fighting the discrimination against black people in the USA. As a result, they were disqualified. › 1972 in Munich (Germany): Palestinian terrorists took Israeli athletes hostage. What is a boycott? − It is the voluntary severing of relations with a person, country or other group in order to exert pressure. Boycotts at the Olympic Games occur when a government refuses to allow its athletes to attend the Games. 1 1. OG London 2012, Photographers at the Women Triathlon © 2012 / International Olympic Committee (IOC) / FURLONG, Christopher © The Olympic Museum 20 The Modern Olympic Games The Games and their era The event ended in tragedy, with nine hostages executed and the death of a policeman and two other members of the Israeli delegation. The terrorists were killed by the police. › 1976 in Montreal (Canada): 22 countries (mostly African) boycotted the Games to protest against a recent tour of South Africa, which imposed apartheid, by the New Zealand rugby team. › 1980 in Moscow (Soviet Union): the United States called for a global boycott in response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. American athletes were forbidden to take part in the Games under threat of having their passports confiscated. Other countries followed the US example and stayed away from Moscow. › 1984 in Los Angeles (USA): in response to the American boycott of 1980, the Soviet Union refused to attend the Games. The official reasons given were the commercialisation of the Games and insufficient guarantees of athletes’ safety. The diplomatic role of the Games If the Games are used for political ends, the Olympic ideal is placed under threat. Nevertheless, the Olympic Games can be used to improve relations between countries and communities. › Since the 1950s, the Olympic Games have provided an opportunity for newly created countries to show the world they exist. Their appearance at the Games has often led to more widespread international recognition (e.g. certain African countries, republics of the former Soviet Union). It has even been the case that the participation of certain athletes in the Games has preceded the political creation of their country (e.g. Timor Leste, a small country located next to Indonesia, which has been independent since 2002). › The end of the apartheid regime allowed South Africa to participate again in the Olympic Games at the 1992 Games in Barcelona (Spain). The victory lap, hand-in-hand, of Ethiopia’s Derartu Tulu, who won the women’s 10,000 metres, and her South African rival Elana Meyer symbolised this change and became one of the highlights of these Games. › At the Opening Ceremony of the 2000 Games in Sydney (Australia), South Korea and North Korea paraded together under a single flag. This act was unprecedented since the breakdown in diplomatic relations between the two countries after the Korean War (1950-1953). › Also in Sydney, the status of the Aborigines was front page news, and several events were organised to make their claims known. The final stage of the torch relay was entrusted to Aboriginal athlete Cathy Freeman, and the culture of the Aboriginal people was a highlight of the Opening Ceremony. 1 1. OG Barcelona 1992 Athletics. 10000m Women – final, Derartu TULU (ETH) 1st and Elana MEYER (RSA) 2nd. © 1992 / IOPP / SASAHARA, Koji © The Olympic Museum 21 The Modern Olympic Games The Games and their era The Geography of the Games Games of the Olympiad (Summer Games) Olympiad Year City Country Continent I 1896 Athens Greece Europe II 1900 Paris France Europe III 1904 St Louis USA North America IV 1908 London United Kingdom Europe V 1912 Stockholm Sweden Europe VI 1916 World War I: The Olympiad was not celebrated VII 1920 Antwerp Belgium Europe VIII 1924 Paris France Europe IX 1928 Amsterdam The Netherlands Europe X 1932 Los Angeles USA North America XI 1936 Berlin Germany Europe XII 1940 World War II: The Olympiad was not celebrated XIII 1944 World War II: The Olympiad was not celebrated XIV 1948 London United Kingdom Europe XV 1952 Helsinki Finland Europe XVI 1956 Melbourne Stockholm (Equestrian Games Australia Sweden Oceania Europe XVII 1960 Rome Italy Europe XVIII 1964 Tokyo Japan Asia XIX 1968 Mexico City Mexico Latin America XX 1972 Munich Germany Europe XXI 1976 Montreal Canada North America XXII 1980 Moscow USSR Europe XXIII 1984 Los Angeles USA North America XXIV 1988 Seoul South Korea Asia XXV 1992 Barcelona Spain Europe XXVI 1996 Atlanta USA North America XXVII 2000 Sydney Australia Oceania XXVIII 2004 Athens Greece Europe XXIX 2008 Beijing China Asia XXX 2012 London United Kingdom Europe XXXI 2016 Rio de Janeiro Brazil Latin America 1. OG Helsinki 1952 Men’s 10km walk: medal ceremony © 1952 / International Olympic Committee (IOC) 1 © The Olympic Museum 22 The Modern Olympic Games The Games and their era Winter Games Number Year City Country Continent 1st 1924 Chamonix France Europe 2nd 1928 St Moritz Switzerland Europe 3rd 1932 Lake Placid USA North America 4th 1936 Garmisch-Partenkirchen Germany Europe 1940 World War II: The Olympiad was not celebrated 1944 World War II: The Olympiad was not celebrated 5th 1948 St Moritz Switzerland Europe 6th 1952 Oslo Norway Europe 7th 1956 Cortina d’Ampezzo Italy Europe 8th 1960 Squaw Valley USA North America 9th 1964 Innsbruck Austria Europe 10th 1968 Grenoble France Europe 11th 1972 Sapporo Japan Asia 12th 1976 Innsbruck Austria Europe 13th 1980 Lake Placid USA North America 14th 1984 Sarajevo Yugoslavia Europe 15th 1988 Calgary Canada North America 16th 1992 Albertville France Europe 17th 1994 Lillehammer Norway Europe 18th 1998 Nagano Japan Asia 19th 2002 Salt Lake City USA North America 20th 2006 Turin Italy Europe 21th 2010 Vancouver Canada North America 22th 2014 Sotchi Russia Europe 23th 2018 PyeongChang South Korea Asia 1. OG Sydney 2000, Closing Ceremony – Gathering of athletes in the stadium. © 2000 / Kishimoto / IOC / NAGAYA, Yo 1 The Olympiads are counted even if the Games do not take place! © The Olympic Museum 23 The Modern Olympic Games Activities - Selective Bibliography Activities Schools – subject area: human and social sciences Look at a globe or a map of the world and locate the Olympic Games host cities. Discuss the geographical distribution of the Summer and Winter Games. Write an article on an athlete who has taken part in the Games but who did not win a medal: describe his/her feelings, emotions and experience. Find out about an Olympic sport. Pick a sport you don’t know from the list of sports on the programme of the Summer or Winter Games. Do some research and prepare a fact sheet on it, including the names of some athletes who practise the sport. Imagine some costumes that could be used at the opening ceremony of the next Olympic Games. Choose a theme and sketch some designs. Identify some other major events that bring people together like the Olympic Games. Make a list of them and identify their similarities and differences. Find some other examples of the interplay between the Olympic Games and the historical, political or cultural situation of the time. Selective Bibliography Young readers › The Olympic Museum. How well do you know the Olympic Games? Lausanne: The Olympic Museum, 3rd edition, 2011 › Clive Gifford.Summer Olympics: the definitive guide to the world's greatest sports celebration Boston: Kingfisher, 2004 › David Fischer. The encyclopedia of the summer Olympics New York [etc.]: Franklin Watts, 2003 › Middleton, Haydn. Modern Olympic Games Chicago: Heinemann Library, 2000 © The Olympic Museum 24 The Modern Olympic Games Teachers › David Miller. The official history of the Olympic Games and the IOC: Athens to London 1984-2012 / by David Miller Edinburgh: Mainstream, 2012
  • Condition: Used
  • Type: Photograph
  • Year of Production: 1936
  • Original/Licensed Reprint: Original

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